White and Red Lead Cements.-Either white lead or red lead by itself, or a mixture of both, is much in request as a cement for the joints of slate or glass cisterns, such as aquariums. These are also employed for the joints of gas-pipes, for cementing metal mounts to glass tubes, and other chemical and electrical purposes. White and red lead cements are made up with boiled linseed-oil, and sometimes gold size is added. Mixed white and red lead make a very hard and firm cement. A cement of these two substances and ground plumbago in equal parts, mixed with oil, is said to stand a great heat in steam-joints.

it.

Shell-lac Cements.-An excellent cement is made

by digesting 4 oz. of the finest shell-lac in 3 oz. of methylated spirit in a warm place. It should be made into a consistency like thick syrup. This makes a firm cement for mending pieces of glass, china, ornamental stones, and ivory. It is not soluble in water. A cheaper, but still very serviceable cement can be formed by dissolving shell-lac in wood naphtha. For some purposes shell-lac itself is used as cement by simply melting Marine Glue is a mixture of shell-lac in a solution of india-rubber. It is made into thin sheets, and melted when required for use in shipbuilding, &c. Gelatin and Isinglass Cements.-Fish-glue, gelatin, or Isinglass (q.v.), made up with dilute acetic acid and other bodies into a jelly or thick liquid, produces a cement slightly varying in its nature, for mending china, glass, ivory, bone, and other substances. Foulke's cement and liquid fish-glue are cements of this class. These can be obtained in a convenient form for use in hardware or druggists' shops. They are more or less soluble in water, so that articles mended with them must be quickly washed. Cement of mixed glue and glycerine, sometimes with tannin added, is occasionally used for leather and cloth.

Armenian or Diamond Cement.-The following is the reputed formula for preparing the cement used by the Armenian jewellers for attaching diamonds, &c., without any metallic setting: 'Dissolve five or six bits of gum-mastic, each the size of a large pea, in as much rectified spirit of wine as will suffice to render it liquid; and in another vessel dissolve as much isinglass, previously a little softened in water-though none of the water must be used-in French brandy, or good rum, as will make a 2-ounce phial of very strong glue, adding two very small bits of galbanum or ammoniacum, which must be rubbed or ground till they are dissolved. Then mix the whole with a sufficient heat. Keep the glue in a phial closely stopped, and when it is to be used, set the phial in boiling water.'

Elastic Cements.-One part of caoutchouc dissolved in 3 parts of chloroform; also, 5 parts of caoutchouc in 3 parts of chloroform, with I part of powdered gum-mastic added. Benzole is sometimes used instead of chloroform as the solvent. Another elastic cement can be made by a mixture of guttapercha and caoutchouc dissolved in bisulphide of carbon. The solvents of these cements must not be exposed to any but a gentle heat.

Resin Cements.--There are a great number of cements partly formed of ordinary resin. One kind consists of resin 4, beeswax 1, and whiting 1 part. The proportions of these ingredients in the same order for another are 15, 1, and 4. Another is made from resin 4, and plaster of Paris 1 part. These cements are used to fix pieces of stone, glass, &c. to handles when grinding them. Resin, pitch, beeswax, and plaster of Paris or brick-dust are made up in various proportions into

CEMETERY

in handles, is made of equal weights of resin and brick-dust melted together; or, for a superior quality, 4 parts of resin, 1 of beeswax, and 1 of brick-dust.

Copal varnish, mastic varnish, Canada balsam, and gold size are each useful occasionally for cementing substances like two pieces of glass together.

Cement-stone, a somewhat argillaceous and ferruginous limestone, generally compact, which is occasionally employed for making hydraulic mortar or cement. The Cement-stone Series is the name of a group of strata occurring in the Carboniferous System of Scotland. See CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM. Cemetery (from the Greek koimētērion, literally a sleeping-place) may mean any graveyard, or other place of deposit for the dead; but it has lately acquired a special meaning, applicable to those extensive ornamental burial-grounds which have recently come into use as the practice of burying within and around churches was gradually abandoned (see BURIAL). The fine burial-grounds of the Turks, extending over large tracts adorned by cedars and other trees, may have suggested the plan to western Europeans. Those round Constantinople are famous, and are dense forests of cypresses. A Moslem grave is never reopened, and a cypress is usually planted after every interment. Of western cities, Paris took the lead in this respect, and in Britain there are now no considerable towns near which there is not at least one cemetery, and the legislation mentioned under the head of BURIAL has rendered their establishment, to a certain extent, a legal necessity. There was at first a natural feeling of regret at the prospect of deserting places of deposit for the dead so hallowed by ancient use and recent associations as the church and the churchyard. On the other hand, the new places of interment began to become attractive in virtue of their trees and flowers, natural scenery, and works of monumental art. The new cemeteries are in many instances cheerful open places, and in them the place of rest for the dead has rather tended to improve than to undermine the health of the living. One of the first and most celebrated of modern European cemeteries is that of Père la Chaise (q.v.), near Paris, the arrangements of which have been generally followed in the cemeteries of London and other English cities. It was laid out in 1804, and is now within the enceinte of the city. The Campo Santo of Pisa (1228-83), the pantheon of the Pisans, has been the model of many Italian cemeteries. It is an oblong court, surrounded by lofty arcades of marble, and adorned with famous frescoes and works of art. In the centre is a mass of earth brought from the Holy Land. The Genoese Campo Santo contains an enormous wealth of sculpture. One Neapolitan cemetery (the Campo Santo Vecchio) differs widely from most others. It contains 366 deep pits, one of which is opened each day, and in it all the interments of the day take place. At night a funeral service is performed, and the pit is filled with earth and lime, not to be reopened till the year after. The Sicilian catacombs are also a kind of cemetery. Kensal Green Cemetery dates from 1832; other well-known London cemeteries are those of Highgate and Woking (1855), near Guildford, 7000 acres in area, with a crematory. The Dean Cemetery at Edinburgh, and the Necropolis of Glasgow, are notable; that of Glasnevin, outside of Dublin, is the most celebrated in Ireland. English cemeteries are usually divided into two portions one consecrated for the burials of members of the Estab lished Church, over whose remains the funeral service is read, and one unconsecrated, for the

CENCI

burials of dissenters. In the United States great pains are bestowed on the adornment of cemeteries. The most famous are Mount Auburn, near Boston, Greenwood in Brooklyn, and Laurel Hill, near Philadelphia. See BURIAL.

Cenci, BEATRICE, 'the beautiful parricide,' was the daughter of Francesco Cenci, a Roman nobleman of colossal wealth. According to Muratori (Annales, lib. x.), Francesco was twice married, Beatrice being the youngest of twelve children by the first wife. After his second marriage, he treated the children of his first wife in a revolting manner, and was even accused of hiring bandits to murder two of his sons on their return from Spain. The beauty of Beatrice inspired him with the horrible and incestuous desire to possess her person; with mingled lust and hate he persecuted her from day to day, until circumstances enabled him to consummate his brutality. The unfortunate_girl besought the help of her relatives, and of Pope Clement VII. (Aldobrandini), but did not receive it; whereupon, in company with her step-mother and her brother, Giacomo, she planned the murder of her unnatural parent, into whose brain two hired assassins drove a large nail (9th September 1598). The crime was discovered, and both she and Giacomo were put to the torture; Giacomo confessed, but Beatrice persisted in the declaration that she was innocent. All, however, were condemned and beheaded (10th September 1599). Such is Muratori's narrative. Others allege that Beatrice was the innocent victim of an infernal plot. The results, however, of Bertolotti's investigations (Francesco Cenci e la sua Famiglia, 1877), based on original documents and contemporary notices, go far to deprive the story of the Cenci tragedy of the romantic elements on which Shelley's powerful tragedy mainly turns. Francesco, it would appear, was profligate, but no monster : Beatrice at the time she murdered her father was not sixteen, but twenty-one years of age, was far from beautiful, and was probably the mother of an illegitimate son. And Bertolotti further shows that the sweet and mournful countenance which forms one of the treasures of the Barberini Palace in Rome cannot possibly be a portrait of Beatrice by Guido, who never painted in Rome till some nine years after Beatrice's death. See an article in the Edinburgh Review for January 1879.

Cenis. See MONT CENIS.

Cenobites. See MONACHISM. Cenomanian, the name given by French geologists to the Lower Chalk and Upper Greensand of English geologists.

Cenotaph (Gr. kenotafion; kenos, empty, and tafos, a tomb'), a monument which does not contain the remains of the deceased. They were originally erected for those whose bones could not be found, as for those who had perished at sea. Latterly the name was applied to tombs built by a man during his lifetime for himself and the members of his family. The memorials in Westminster Abbey to Franklin and Gordon are cenotaphs.

Censer (Fr. encensoir, from Lat. incendo, 'I burn'), a vase, or other sacred vessel, used for burning Incense (q.v.). Censers were used in the Hebrew service of the temple. The ordinary censer, called also a thurible (Lat. thuribulum, from thus, 'frankincense'), used in Catholic services, is a metallic vessel for holding burning charcoal, of brass or latten, silver, silver-plated, or even of gold. It is shaped like a vase or cup, has a movable cover, usually perforated, and is suspended by chains (generally four in number) so as to be swung to and fro for the readier dispersion

of the smoke of the incense, which is thrown upon the live charcoal.

Censors, the name of two Roman officers of state of high dignity, whose duties related to the official registration of the citizens (census), the superintendence of public morals (regimen morum), and arrangements for the collection of the public revenue and the execution of public works. They were elected in the comitia centuriata, presided over by a consul. The term of office at first lasted five years, but was shortly afterwards limited to eighteen months. The censorship was regarded as the highest dignity in the state, except the dictatorship. It was a sacred and irresponsible magistracy, whose powers were vast and undefined, and whose decisions were received with solemn reverence. The census or registration was taken in the Campus Martius, in a building called Villa Publica. It was a complete catalogue of the citizens of Rome, stating in detail the age of each, the amount of his property, and the number of his children. Next the censors drew up a list of the equites, entitled to have a horse at the public expense, and made up the roll of senators, supplying the vacancies. The regimen morum was the most dreaded and absolute of their powers. It grew naturally out of the exercise of the previous duty, which compelled them to exclude unworthy persons from the lists of citizens. Gradually the superintendence of the censor extended from the public to the private life of citizens. They could inflict disgrace (ignominia) on any one whose conduct did not square with their notions of rectitude or duty. For instance, if a man neglected the cultivation of his fields, or carried on a disreputable trade, or refused to marry, or treated his family either too kindly or too harshly, or was extravagant, or guilty of bribery, cowardice, &c., he might be degraded, according to his rank, or otherwise punished. The administration of the finances of the state included the regulation of the tributum or property-tax; of the vectigalia, such as the tithes paid for the public lands, salt-works, mines, customs, &c., which were usually leased out to speculators for five years; the preparation of the state budget, &c. The office of censor continued to be filled by patricians till 351 B.C., when Censor Marcius Rutilus, a plebeian, was elected. Twelve years later it was enacted that one of the censors In (there were always two) must be a plebeian. 131 B.C. both censors for the first time were plebeians.

Censorship of Press. See PRESS.

Census means the counting of the people. The word is a Latin one, and was applied to the functions which the Roman Censors (q.v.) performed of periodically enumerating the people, but no records of these enumerations remain, and indeed we have but a few scattered notices of them. In Greece a census was established by Solon at Athens for the double purpose of facilitating taxation and classifying the citizens. Religious prejudice prevented any censuses being taken during the middle ages, and it was not till the 18th century that the necessity for obtaining correct information as to the population of European countries overcame this feeling. The first country to undertake a census on a scientific basis was Sweden in 1749; in France an enumeration was made in 1700, but the first reliable was not taken till 1801. In America the first census was taken in 1790, and in England in 1801. Censuses are now taken in Austria, Belgium, Italy, Norway and Sweden, Russia, Switzerland, the United States of America, India, and most of the British colonies, every ten years; in France and Germany every five years; in Spain at irreg

ular intervals, the next after that of 1860 having been in 1877. The International Statistical Congress, which consists of eminent statisticians from all countries, has done much to improve the taking of censuses, and now several countries, such as Austria, Belgium, Italy, Prussia, Russia, and Switzerland, have statistical bureaus for the purpose, amongst other things, of controlling the taking of the periodical census. In a few countries information as to the religion of the population, and in some cases additional particulars, are obtained, such as the census of useful domestic animals' in Norway.

In the United Kingdom the practice is for parliament to pass special acts directing the tak ing of each census. These acts provide that the registrars of births and deaths shall be the officers through whom the census is to be taken by enumerators, of whom at the census of 1881 there were upwards of 30,000 employed in England alone. All the registrars' districts are so subdivided that no enumerator has more houses than he can con

or

veniently visit in one day. The enumerators have to deliver schedules at all houses, requiring particulars concerning every person who is alive at midnight preceding the census day, and on the census day to collect them. Account has also to be taken of all persons not dwelling in houses wherever found, and of persons travelling, and persons in ships, barges, &c. The enumerators are authorised to require the information necessary for the census, and persons refusing to answer wilfully giving false answers to the questions are rendered liable to penalties. The particulars to be required in each census are specified in the act directing it to be taken. The Census Act, 1880, required that the census of the following year should show the name, sex, age, rank, profession or occupation, condition as to marriage, relation to head of family, and birthplace of every living person who abode in every house on the night of Sunday the 3d of April 1881, and also whether any were blind or deaf and dumb, or imbecile or lunatic.' When the schedules have been collected they are transmitted to the census office, where the work of tabulation, which takes about two years, is carried out. The census when finished is presented to parliament in the form of several bulky volumes. Hardly any two countries agree as to the subjects on which information is demanded; thus some census schedules contain inquiries as to whether there are in the household infirm persons, blind, deaf and dumb, idiots, insane persons, persons who have been convicted of crime; how many languages are spoken by the persons entered; how many are at school; how many exercise the franchise; how many rooms and windows there are in the house, and so on. In 1851 an attempt was made to obtain religious statistics of the United Kingdom; since that year the census shows the religious statistics of Ireland only.

The census of the United States aims at giving a specially full conspectus of the condition of the people, and is illustrated by a large number of maps bearing on almost every branch of the census inquiries. Thus there are maps showing the prevalence of certain diseases; others the area occupied by various crops. The United States census of 1880 extended to 22 volumes, embracing statistics of population, agriculture, manufactures, mining, taxation, public indebtedness, with special reports on cotton-growing, petroleum, coal, coke, buildingstones, iron and steel products, &c. The census of 1890 is comparatively limited in the scope of its inquiries.

Cent and Centime (Lat. centum, 'a hundred'), names of coins. The Dutch cent is a copper coin, the 100th part of the guilder (1s. 8d.);

CENTENARIAN

the United States cent is a bronze coin, the 100th part of the dollar, or nearly one halfpenny English, and the Canadian cent has the same value. The centime, the 100th part of the French franc, and of the value of th of an English penny, has been adopted in Belgium, and, under other names, in Greece, Italy, and Switzerland; and the Spanish real (24d.) also is divided into 100 centimes. The cental in the United States, legalised in 1878, is 100 lb. avoirdupois (cf. CENTNER). See DECIMAL SYSTEM.

Centaurea, a palearctic genus of Compositæ, containing about two hundred species, all herbaceous annual and perennial, of which five or six are natives of Britain. The species most familiar, on account of its beauty, is the blue C. cyanus (see CORN-FLOWER), which is sometimes sown as an annual; while its larger perennial ally, C. montana, with white or purple ray florets, is a familiar denizen of old-fashioned gardens; C. americana is a showy lilac-purple annual (3 or 4 feet); while the oriental Sweet Sultan (C. moschata) and Yellow Sultan (C. amberboa) are also not uncommon; the latter two being often sold under the name of Amberboa. Among perennials, the large, downy C. babylonica, with yellow flowers, is often cultivated; also C. ragusina and C. candidissima, of which the silver-white pinnate leaves furnish an admired contrast to bright-coloured bedding-plants. Several species (C. calcitrapa, &c.) bear the name of Star-thistle, from their spiny involucre. are common wayside weeds, often troublesome in pastures, notably C. nigra, the Common or Black Knapweed, also called Horse Knot in Scotland; and the closely allied C. Scabiosa. The flowers or roots of several species were formerly used in dyeing, and the astringent roots employed by herbalists.

and covered with hair.

Some

Cen'taurs (bull-killers '), a wild race of men who inhabited, in early times, the forests and mountains of Thessaly, and whose chief occupation was bull-hunting. Homer, the first who mentions them, describes them merely as savage, gigantic, They do not appear as monsters, half-man and half-horse, until the age of Pindar. The most ancient account of the Hippocentaurs, sometimes considered as distinct, but more often confounded with the Centaurs, is that they were the offspring of Magnesian mares and Centaurus, himself the offspring of Ixion and a cloud. The Centaurs are celebrated in Greek mythology on account of their struggles with the Lapithæ (q.v.), and with Hercules. famous was Chiron, the teacher of Achilles and other heroes. In works of art the Centaurs were represented as men from the head to the loins, with the rest of the body that of a horse. It is worth mentioning that the Mexicans, who had no native horses, when they first saw the Spaniards on horseback, believed that the horse and together made but one animal.

The most

man

Centaury (Erythraea), a pretty little annual, genus of Gentianaceae, with pink or rose coloured flowers. They possess the tonic and other medicinal virtues of gentian, and the Common Centaury (E. Centaurium) has especially been esteemed in medicine since the days of Dioscorides and Galen; and although no longer in the pharmacopoeia, its flower-tops are still sometimes gathered and dried by country-people in England and the Continent; while the allied Sabbatia angularis enjoys similar repute in the United States and Canada. The Yellow Centaury is Chlora perfoliata; but plants belonging to the wholly distinct composite genus Centaurea (q.v.) are also sometimes called Centaury.

Centenarian. See LONGEVITY.

In

evolved centipede is a very uniform and oldfashioned animal when compared with any normal insect or spider. In the order itself we distinguish four families (1) Scutigerida, (2) Lithobiida, (3) Scolopendridæ, (4) Geophilidæ. The first of these includes curious forms with compound eyes, very long feelers, eight shields along the back, and fifteen pairs of very long legs. The feelers and the last pair of legs are longer than the body; there are external generative appendages. Scutigera, and apparently in some other centipedes, there are peculiar lung-like' dorsal aggregations of air-tubes opening on the back, and perhaps the beginning of the pulmonary chambers' of some arachnids. Scutigera is represented by about a score of species, widely distributed in warm countries, and common in houses. In Lithobiidæ, as in the two other families, simple eyes alone are present; there are fifteen pairs of legs, antennæ measuring a third or more of the body length, and fifteen dorsal shields. The genus Lithobius includes over one hundred species-L. forficatus (of a reddish-brown colour, and about an inch long) is very common throughout Europe and America; our most familiar British species, L. mutabilis, also very common, has the habit of feigning death. The bite occasions considerable irritation, like that due to nettle-stings.

Giant Centipede (Scolopendra gigas).

The Scolopendridae have over a score of legs, short many-jointed antennæ, not more than one-fifth of the total length of the body; and simple eyes, not over four pairs in number, or altogether absent. About one hundred species are known, distributed over sixteen genera. They are especially at home in warm countries, where they often attain large size, the Scolopendra gigas, for instance, being sometimes a foot long. The poisonous bite of some of the larger forms is really dangerous to man. Scolopendra is the most important genus. Lastly, the Geophilidæ are very long, worm-like centipedes, of somewhat sluggish habit, with 31 to 173 pairs of legs, short feelers, and no eyes. Some 22 species and 9 genera have been recorded, especially abundant in warm climates. Geophilus electricus and another species, G. longicornis, both found in Britain, shine in the dark. This is probably due to a viscid fluid excreted all over the ventral surface. Himantarium, found round the Mediterranean, is the largest form of Geophilidae. Well-developed spinning glands are seen in this family, and their secretion cements together ova and spermatozoa.

Distribution.-The centipedes are world-wide, but abound especially in warm regions. Some what unsatisfactory fossil remains have been obtained from the American Carboniferous strata; better preserved possible centipedes have been got from the Solenhofen strata, but it cannot yet be said with certainty that centipedes are known before Tertiary times.

CENTRAL AMERICA

Practical Import.-The centipedes have some direct practical importance as voracious devourers of injurious insects, larvæ, snails, and the like, while some of the large tropical forms are known in a somewhat different connection as animals able to give a painful and poisonous bite. In his Personal Narrative, Humboldt says he saw Indian children draw large centipedes out of the ground and eat them.

Literature.-Newport, Monograph of the class Myriapoda, order Chilopoda (Trans. Linnean Society, vol. xix. 1845); Haase, Schlesiens Chilopoden (1880-81); Latzel, Die Myriapoden Oesterreichs (1880-84).

Centlivre, SUSANNAH, an English dramatic authoress, was the daughter of a Lincolnshire gentleman named Freeman, of Holbeach, and born say some authorities) in Ireland about 1667. Her early history is obscure; but such were her wit and beauty that on her arrival in London, though a destitute orphan, and only sixteen years of age, she won the heart of a nephew of Sir Stephen Fox, who died shortly after their marriage. Her second husband, an officer named Carroll, lost his life in a duel. Left in extreme poverty, his widow endeavoured to support herself by writing for the stage, and after producing a tragedy called The Perjured Husband (performed first in 1700), made her appearance on the stage at Bath. She afterwards married (1706) Joseph Centlivre, headcook to Queen Anne, with whom she lived happily until the time of her death, December 1, 1723. Her plays-The Busybody (with 'Marplot' for leading character, 1709), and A Bold Stroke for a Wife (1717)-are lively in their plots, and have kept their place on the stage. Nineteen in all, they were collected in 3 vols. 1761, with a biography, and reprinted 1872.

Centner is, with metallurgists, a weight of 100 lb., and it often has this value in commerce. The German centner is however 50 kilogrammes or 110 lb. avoirdupois. The cental of the United States is 100 lb.

Cento, a town of Central Italy, 16 miles N. by W. of Bologna, on a fertile plain near the Reno. It is the birthplace of the famous painter Guercino (q.v.) of Cento. Pop. 4975.

Cento, a name applied to literary trivialities in the form of poems manufactured by putting together distinct verses or passages of one author, or of several authors, so as to make a new meaning. After the decay of genuine poetry among the Greeks, this worthless verse-manufacture came into vogue, as is proved by the Homero-centones (ed. by Teucher, Leip. 1793), a patchwork of lines taken from Homer and forming a consecutive It was history of the fate and redemption of man. much more common, however, among the Romans in the later times of the Empire, when Virgil was frequently abused in this fashion, as in the Cento Nuptialis of Ausonius, and especially in the Cento Vergilianus, constructed in the 4th century by Proba Falconia, wife of the Proconsul Adelfius, and giving, in Virgil's misplaced words, an epitome of sacred history. The cento was a favourite recreation in the middle ages. In the 12th century a monk at Tegernsee, named Metellus, contrived to make a cento of spiritual hymns out of Horace and Virgil. See Delepierre, Tableau de la Littérature du Centon (1875).

Central America, a name applied to that part of the American continent which lies between the isthmuses of Tehuantepec and Panama, but by some extended to embrace Mexico. It includes the republics of Guatemala, Honduras, San Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica; Belize; a small part of the Colombian state of Panama; and the Mexican state of Chiapa and peninsula