Cepola. See BANDFISH.

Ceram' (SERANG), the largest island of the southern Moluccas, lies NE. of Amboyna, to which Dutch residency it belongs, and is divided into Great and Little Ceram by the Isthmus of Taruno. Area, 6605 sq. m.; pop. 195,000. The island is one of the least explored in the archipelago, and comparatively little is known of the interior, which is, moreover, but scantily populated, the great mass of the people, mostly native Alfuros and immigrant Malays, inhabiting the coast villages. Much of the island is very fertile. A mountain-chain runs through the country, reaching in Nusa Keli some 11,000 feet. The chief exports are sago, iron, timber, earthenware, birds of Paradise, dried fish, edible nests, &c.

Ceram'ics (Gr. keramos, 'potter's clay'), a term used to designate the department of plastic art which comprises all objects made of clay, such as vases, cups, bassi-rilievi, cornices, and the like. See POTTERY.

Cerastes, or HORNED VIPER, a genus of serpents of the family Viperidæ, distinguished by a broad depressed heart-shaped head, the scales of which are similar to those of the back, and particularly remarkable for the development of one of the scales of each eyelid into a spine or horn, often of considerable length. The tail is very distinct

Horned Viper (Cerastes vulgaris).

from the body. This genus is exclusively African, and very venomous. There is probably only one species, Cerastes ægyptiacus or cornutus, the Horned Viper of the north of Africa, called Cerastes by the ancients, the name being derived from the Greek keras, a horn.' It was correctly described by the traveller Bruce, but his description was for some time regarded with incredulity.

Cerate (Lat. cera, wax'), a compound of wax with other oily and medicinal substances in such proportions as to have the consistence of an Ointment (q.v.). Simple cerate is made by melting together 6 parts of olive-oil, 3 of white wax, and I of spermaceti.

Ceratites, a genus of Ammonites (q.v.) peculiar to, and characteristic of, the Trias. Cerat'odus, the Queensland mud-fish, one of the remarkable sub-class of double breathers or Dipnoi. The name was originally used for the fossil possessors of certain tooth-plates found in the

Ceratodus.

Triassic and Jurassic strata, and to this genus the Queensland survivor, which has similar dental arrangements, was referred when discovered in 1870. Barra munda is the local name. The fish may occasionally attain a length of six feet, has a later

CEREALIA

ally compressed body with large scales, and pos sesses very unfish-like limbs with a central jointed axis and lateral pieces. It lives in muddy water often containing much decaying vegetable matter. In this medium it does not find the gill-respiration sufficient, and comes to the surface to take gulps of air into the swimming-bladder, which functions as a lung. It eats leaves and other parts of plants. At nights Ceratodus sometimes leaves the water, and moves along the river-bank. The expulsion of air from its air-bladder or lung is supposed to account for a grunting noise then often heard. In the dry season it buries itself in the mud.

Limb of Ceratodus.

The flesh is much esteemed, and compared with salmon. This interesting animal will be discussed, in its more technical relations, along with its neighbour genera-Lepidosiren and Protopterusunder the title MUD-FISHES.

Ceratonia. See CAROB.

Cerberus, in Greek Mythology, the many. headed dog-according to Hesiod, the offspring of Typhaon and Echidna-who guarded the portal of the infernal regions. Later writers describe him as only three-headed, with the tail and mane composed of serpents, though the poets sometimes encumber him with a hundred heads. Orpheus charmed him by the magic of his lyre, and Hercules overcame him by strength and dragged him to the upper world.

Cerca'ria, the technical name applied to an suckered flat parasitic worms embryonic form of many flukes. In all the two(the Distomeæ division of Trematodes) the development is indirect or circuitous. which, instead of growing into adults, produce The eggs develop into embryos, asexually one or more sets of intermediate forms. the embryo, is called a cercaria, and grows up into The final form, produced more or less directly from the adult fluke. It differs from the adult in having only rudiments of reproductive organs, in possessing eye-spots, and in being (except in one genus) equipped with a very movable tail. It is (1) born within some host, such as a water-snail; (2) leaves this and swims freely in the water; (3) becomes sluggish, and enters a second host, or fixes itself on some foreign body. In this state it loses its tail and encapsules itself, and does not experience any further change till (4) it or its host is eaten by a vertebrate, within which the cercaria becomes an adult and sexual fluke. From the latter the em bryos which eventually enter the first-mentioned host arise. Sometimes the life-history is simpler, but in all cases the cercaria is the form produced (generally indirectly) by the original embryo, and developing into the adult. See FLUKE.

Cercis. See JUDAS' TREE.

Cercopithe'cus (Gr., ' tail-ape '), a genus of Monkeys (q.v.).

Cere. See BILL.

Cerea'lia, or CEREAL GRASSES, so named from Ceres (q.v.), are the plants which produce grain or corn; in strictness, all the species of grasses (Gramineæ) cultivated for the sake of their seed as an article of food. They are also called Corn-plants or Bread-plants; but in this wide

popular sense the term cereal ceases to have any botanical limits, and includes plants of wholly distinct orders, notably Buckwheat (natural order, Polygonaceae), and Quinoa (Chenopodiace), &c.; even the Lotus of the Nile, the Victoria regia, and other species of water-lilies might

thus be added to the list.

The cereals proper do not belong to any particular tribe of the great order of grasses, but the employment of particular species as bread-plants seems to have been determined chiefly by the superior size of the seed, or by the facility of procuring it in sufficient quantity, and of freeing it from its unedible envelopes. The most extensively cultivated grains are Wheat (Triticum), Barley (Hordeum), Rye (Secale), Oats (Avena), Rice (Oryza), Maize or Indian Corn (Zea), different kinds of Millet (Setaria, Panicum, Paspalum, Pennisetum, and Penicillaria), and Durra or Guinea Corn (Sorghum or Andropogon). These have all been cultivated from time immemorial, and there is great uncertainty as to the number of species to which the many existing varieties belong; their original forms and native countries often cannot confidently be determined. Barley, oats, and rye are the grains of the coldest regions, the cultivation of the former two extending even within the arctic circle. Wheat is next to these, and in the warmer regions of the temperate zone its cultivation is associated with that of maize and rice, which are extensively cultivated within the tropics. The millets belong to warm climates, and durra is tropical or sub-tropical. Rice is the food of a greater number of the human race than any other kind of grain. See CORN, BARLEY, MAIZE, MILLET, RICE, WHEAT, and other separate articles.

Cerebration, UNCONSCIOUS. There can be no doubt that molecular changes in the cerebrum accompany all our conscious mental processes. The doctrine of unconscious cerebration as stated by Carpenter, Laycock, and others, holds that similar changes may go on in the cerebrum without any consciousness on our part, until the fully elaborated mental result is presented. It is an every-day experience that after one has been in vain trying to recall some name or incident, it will suddenly flash into the mind when one is thinking of some entirely different subject. According to Carpenter the cerebrum put in action by our consciousness has gone on working automatically but unconsciously, until the processes accompanying the mental operation of remembering the name or incident have been completed. This is the physiological statement corresponding to the psychological doctrine that the mind may undergo modifications without being conscious of the process until the new combination is presented to consciousness. See CONSCIOUSNESS, MIND.

Cerebro-spinal Fluid is a clear, almost colourless, slightly alkaline fluid, closely resembling lymph in its composition, but containing less albumen. It is contained partly within the ventricular system of the brain, and in part in the loose connective tissue (subarachnoid meshwork), which lies between the Arachnoid and Pia Mater (q.v.), being continued from this latter situation along the lymphatic sheaths, which closely invest all the blood-vessels in the substance of the brain and spinal cord. The spaces which contain it communicate with the lymphatics of the head and of the nerves, and with the venous sinuses in the dura mater. Its main function, besides that of removing waste products, is to equalise the pressure within the skull. As the blood pressure increases that of the cerebro-spinal fluid diminishes, and vice versa. As the brain atrophies it is replaced by a proportionate increase in the fluid. In some dis

eases, such as acute and chronic Hydrocephalus (q.v.), it is greatly increased, and then it becomes a cause of atrophy of the brain. Its value as a water-cushion in diminishing the violence of shock from external injury has been already referred to at BRAIN. Cerebro-spinal means pertaining to the brain and spinal cord together, to the cerebrospinal system. For Cerebro-spinal Meningitis, see MENINGITIS.

Cerebrum. See BRAIN.

Ceremonies, MASTER OF THE, an officer at court, instituted by James I. for the reception of ambassadors and dignitaries. The same name came to be used for the supreme authority on etiquette at public assemblies at Bath and elsewhere; Beau Nash (q.v.) being the most memorable.

Cereopsis (Gr., wax-face'), a genus of birds of the family Anatidae, to which the New Holland goose (C. nova hollandia) belongs. This bird has been known since the southern shores of Australia were first visited by navigators. There, and on the adjacent islands, they were found in great abundance; and so little were they acquainted with the danger to be apprehended from man, that the earlier navigators easily supplied themselves with fresh provisions by knocking them down with sticks.

The flight is slow and heavy, and the bird is naturally becoming less abundant. The cere (see BILL) is remarkably large, whence the name. Ceres, the Roman name of the great Greek goddess Demeter, the protectress of agriculture and the fruits of the earth. Her worship was borrowed by the Romans from Sicily. Her first temple in Rome was vowed by the dictator A. Postumius Albinus (496 B.C.), to avert a famine with which the city was threatened. A great festival, with games, the Cerealia, was instituted in her honour, and her worship acquired great importance in the city. The decrees of the senate were deposited in her temple for the inspection of the tribunes of the people. See DEMETER.

Ceres, one of the Planetoids (q.v.), and the first of them that was discovered. It was first seen by Piazzi at Palermo, January 1, 1801, and is sometimes visible to the naked eye, looking like a star between the seventh and eighth magnitudes.

Cereus, a large genus of Cactaceae (q.v.), containing many of the most imposing forms of the order, both as respects vegetation and flowering. C. giganteus reaches a height of 60 feet, often unbranched, its tall pillars giving an extraordinary character to the landscape of New Mexico, while the allied C. peruvianus (36 feet) takes its place in Peru. Others have thin snake-like branches (C. flagelliformis), while the short obconical C. senilis is covered with long silky hairs. Many have splendid flowers, and of these C. speciosissimus with scarlet or purplish flowers is often cultivated, while C. grandiflorus is the well-known night-flowering cactus. The fruits are often much esteemed. For illustration, see CACTUS.

Cerignola, a town of Italy, 22 miles SE. of Foggia by rail, with manufactures of linen, and a trade in almonds and cotton. The Spaniards' decisive victory over the French here in 1503 established Spain's supremacy in Naples. Pop. 22,659.

Ceri'go, the southernmost of the seven Ionian Islands (q.v.), now officially known again by its old Greek name of Cythera, is separated from the coast of Morea by a narrow strait. Area, 107 sq. m.; pop. (1879) 13,259. It is mostly barren and mountainous in some parts; but corn, wine, and olives and fruits are raised. Capsali is the capital. In ancient times the island was sacred to Venus, as the land that received the goddess when she arose from the sea.

He

Cerinthus, a heretic who lived at the close of the apostolic age, but of whom we have nothing better than uncertain and confused accounts. He is said to have been a native of Alexandria. passed from Egypt into Asia Minor, and lived in Ephesus contemporaneously (according to the belief of the church) with the aged apostle John. It is related by Irenæus, on the authority of Polycarp, that John held the heretic in such detestation that, on a certain occasion, when he encountered Cerinthus in the baths of Ephesus, he immediately left the baths, saying to those about him: Let us fly, lest the bath fall on us, since Cerinthus is within, the enemy of the truth.' It is also said by Irenæus that the Gospel by St John was written in direct opposition to the tenets of Cerinthus. He held that the world was not made by the highest God, but by some angel or power far removed from and ignorant of the Supreme Being He is also said to have held coarse and sensual millenarian views, to have believed the Jewish ceremonial law to be in part binding upon Christians, and to have taught that the Divine Spirit was first united with the man Jesus in his baptism by John. Cerinthus being, so far as is known, the oldest teacher of Judaico-Gnostic principles, and, according to Neander, the intermediate link between the Judaising and Gnostic sects,' there would naturally be a greater incongruity and want of harmony in his system than in the later developments of Gnosticism (q.v.).

Cerithium, a genus of Prosobranchiate Gasteropods, and type of a large family, Cerithiadæ. The shell is rough, naked, spiral, elongated, with many coils, and with an oval oblique aperture which has a short canal in front. The species of this family are numerous (140), most of them marine, but many inhabiting estuaries and brackish rather than salt water; some are found in lakes and rivers. A few belong to temperate climates, but most of them are tropical, and in mangrove swamps they particularly abound. The fossil species are very numerous, and almost all limited to the Tertiary formations. C. vulgatum, over six inches in height, is often seen in Italian markets. Cerium (sym. Ce, eq. 92) is a rare metal found in cerite and a few other minerals. It is a white metal, has not been obtained in any quantity, is not therefore employed in any manufacture, and forms two basic oxides and a numerous

class of salts. The nitrate and oxalate of cerium have been employed in the vomiting of pregnancy, their action being somewhat similar to that of the

subnitrate of bismuth. Cerium biscuits are biscuits containing a small proportion of the oxalate, and they form a very convenient medium for the administration of the salt. Cerite or Ochröite is the silicate of cerium, and is found as a mineral in gneiss, near Riddarhytta, in Westmanland in

Sweden.

Cerox'ylon. See WAX PALM.

Cerre'to, a cathedral city of South Italy, on a slope of the Apennines, 14 miles NNW. of Benevento. Pop. 5129.

Cerro de Pasco, the capital of the Peruvian department of Junin, stands at an elevation of 14,276 feet, 138 miles NE. of Lima. Near it are some of the richest silver-mines on the continent.

The climate is cheerless and inclement. Pop. 7000, mostly Indians and half-breeds.

Cerro Gordo, a plateau in Mexico, the most easterly on the route from Vera Cruz to the capital. Here, on 18th April 1847, the Americans totally

defeated the Mexicans.

Cerro Largo, a department in the NE. of Uruguay, well watered, with large savannahs and

CERTIORARI

forests. Area, 5735 sq. m.; pop. (1884) 36,000, chiefly engaged in cattle-raising. Capital, Cerro Largo or Melo; pop. 5000.

Certaldo, a town of Central Italy, 19 miles SW. of Florence (37 by rail). It is noteworthy as the residence of Boccaccio, who was born and died here. His house is still standing, much as it was in the poet's time. Pop. 2500.

Certhiidæ, a family of birds, generally placed in the great order Insessores or Passeres. They are best known by their most typical representatives the Creepers (q.v.). They are widely distributed birds, absent however from the Ethiopian and neo-tropical regions, and the family includes twelve genera and about fifty species. They are expert climbers, and feed on insects.

Certificate, in the law of England and of the United States, is a written statement by a person having a public or official status concerning some matter within his knowledge and authority. There are a great many classes of such certificates-e.g. certificate of charge upon land; certificate of the chief-clerk in Chancery proceedings, which is practically a report of what the clerk has done; certificate of discharge of a debtor in liquidation; certificate of incorporation under the Companies Acts; certificate of mortgage on ships under the Merchant Shipping Acts; certificate of naturalisation. In the United States, the word is commonly applied to any formal statement made by a public servant in the execution of his duty, as by a collector of taxes, a postmaster, &c. See CHARACTER.

Certification, in the law of Scotland, signifies the judicial assurance given to a party of the course to be followed by the judge in case he disobeys the will of a summons, or other writ or order of the court. Reiterated contumacy on the part of the defender was at one time punished with confiscation of his property (1449, chap. 29), but now certification merely means that if he fails to appear in the usual manner, the judge will decern, or pronounce judgment against him.

Certiora'ri is the writ by which, since the abolition of imprisonment for debt and the consequent disuse of the better known writ habeas corpus, causes are removed from inferior courts of record into the High Court of Justice. This is a matter of considerable importance to the commercial public. Such removal is either before or after judgment in the inferior court. Before judgment certiorari is competent as tort, in all cases except where the sum sued for is less than £5. Either party can remove the cause, but, where the sum is less than £20, the defendant must give his sureties for the debt and costs. The removal must be within six weeks after appearance of defendant. In the superior court the plaintiff must make a fresh statement of claim. The certiorari is obeyed by sending up the original record. Under the Judicature Acts there is a further power of removal when any defence or counter-claim is set up which is beyond the jurisdiction of the inferior court. In the county courts, where the action on contract is above £20, or on tort above £5, the defendant has a general right to certiorari on security for costs. Where the discretion of the superior court is appealed to, such considerations as the difficulty of legal points, the improbability of obtaining an impartial jury, are important. After judgment, certiorari is often applied for by the successful plaintiff for purposes of execution, where the person or effects of the defendant cannot be found may also be obtained as of right by the crown to in the jurisdiction of the inferior court. remove au indictment in a criminal cause to the Queen's Bench Division or the Central Criminal Court. This writ used also to be of right to private

Certiorari

vious circulation in manuscript and he and his brother-dramatists showed how bitterly they resented the criticism in chapter 48. Cervantes was slow in taking advantage of his popularity. Instead of giving his readers the sequel they asked for, he busied himself with writing for the stage and composing short tales, or 'exemplary novels ' as he called them. The Viage del Parnaso, a poem of over 3000 lines in terza rima, reviewing the poetry and poets of the day, was another of his productions at this time. In 1613 he published his twelve Novelas, and promised his readers the second part of Don Quixote 'shortly.' But in 1614 a writer, under the pseudonym of Alonso Fernandez de Avellaneda, brought out a spurious second part, with an insulting preface, full of coarse personal abuse of Cervantes. It was the work of a dull plagiarist, an imitator insensible to the merits of his model; but it served as the spur Cervantes needed to urge him to the completion of the genuine second part, which was sent to the press early in 1615, and published at the end of the year. It was not too soon; his health was already failing, and he died at Madrid on the 23d of April 1616. His last labours were given to things more important in his eyes than Don Quixote. While it was in the press he revised and published his rejected comedies and interludes, and but a short time before his death he finished his romance of Persiles and Sigismunda. There are few pieces of his writing more characteristic of the man than the last two that ever came from his pen-written, indeed, upon his very deathbed-the address to the reader and the dedication to the Conde de Lemos, whose generosity had relieved him from the pressure of poverty; and, like every glimpse of himself that his pages give us, they make us wish that we knew more of one so full of wisdom, patience, and charity, so bright and so brave.

The

It is in right of Don Quixote that the name of Cervantes has a place here; but his minor works entitle him to an honourable one in the history of Spanish literature. His novels are the best of their kind a kind Spain excelled in; and though the Galatea is doubtless inferior to the Diana, its greatest fault is that, like the Diana, it belongs to a radically insipid species of romance. title of poet is commonly denied him; but if a good deal of his poetry is weak, there is much that only a poet could have written, and not even Garcilaso had a finer sense of melody or a truer touch in verse. It would be unjust to judge of his dramatic powers by the comedies printed in 1615. They were nothing more than a desperate attempt to gain a footing on the stage by a concession to the popular taste. To found a great national drama worthy of his country was the ambition of his life, and the first step was to obtain a hearing. The tragedy of Numancia, with all its defects the most powerful and original drama in the language, is a better measure of Cervantes as a dramatist. And if it is impossible to accept his own estimate of the Persiles and Sigismunda, no reader will deny its invention and grace of style. His minor works all show signs of the author's care; Don Quixote, on the other hand, is the most carelessly written of all great books. Cervantes, it is plain, did not look upon it in that light. He was very proud of its popularity; but all he ever claims for it is that it will amuse, and that it did the state some service in laughing chivalry romances out of fashion. He wrote it by fits and starts; he neglected it for his other works; he sent it to the printers without revision, and made merry over their blunders and his own oversights. But it may be that we owe more to this carelessness than we think. One of

the marvels of this marvellous book is its perennial youth. After well-nigh three centuries it is as fresh and full of life as when it came from La Cuesta's press. In his other works Cervantes studied recognised models and consulted the tastes of the day; in Don Quixote he followed the lead of his own genius alone, and wrote only as instinct prompted him. Written in a desultory fashion, it had time to grow and ripen under his hand; Don Quixote and Sancho, outlines at first, became by degrees flesh and blood realities to his mind, and beings that he loved; and the book-the second part especially-served him as a kind of commonplacebook to which he turned to when he was in the mood, making it the depository of his thoughts and record of the experience and observation of a stirring life. We need not commit the disloyalty of doubting his word when he says that all he sought was to cure his countrymen of their passion for chivalry romances. He had motive enough in the magnitude of the evil, and his was only one of scores of voices lifted up against it; nor is there anything extraordinary in a champion of true chivalry, as he was, resenting a mockery that made it contemptible. But the genius of Cervantes was essentially discursive, and many other offenders and offences were comprehended in the indictment that he brought against the romances of chivalry and their readers.

The only complete edition of Cervantes' works is that of Rivadeneyra (in 12 vols. large 8vo, Madrid, 1863-64). Editions of the selected works are those of Ibarra (16 vols. small 8vo, Madrid, 1803-5), Bossange (10 vols. 12mo, Paris, 1826), and vol. i. of the Biblioteca de Autores Españoles (Madrid, 1846). Of Don Quixote in the original about 150 editions are known, and more than double that number of editions in other languages. The first worthy of the book was Tonson's (London, 1738, in 4 vols. 4to); other notable ones are the Academy edition (4 vols. 4to, Madrid 1780); Bowle's (6 vols. 4to, Salisbury and Lond. 1781); Pellicer's (5 vols. 8vo, Madrid, 1797–98); Clemencin's (6 vols. 4to, Madrid, 1833-39), with exhaustive commentary and notes; Hartzenbusch's, in vols. iii.-vi. of the complete works, and also in 4 vols. small 8vo. 1863, a beautiful pocket edition printed at Argamasilla, in the house which was, according to local tradition, the prison of Cervantes; in these last the editor has in many instances restored the text of the first edition, but in many also recklessly tampered with it. F. Lopez Fabra's (2 vols. 4to, Barcelona, 1871-74) is an admirable reproduction by photography of the first edition. The claim of Señor Ortego's edition (Palencia, 1884) to give corrections made by Cervantes himself cannot be seriously maintained. There are translations in fourteen languages. The oldest is the English by Shelton, made in 1608 and printed 1612 (second part, 1620), a vigorous but rude and inaccurate version. Other English translations are those of Phillips (1689), Motteux (1702), Jervas (commonly called Jarvis, 1742), Smollett (1755), A. J. Duffield (3 vols. 8vo, 1881), John Ormsby (4 vols. 8vo, 1885), and H. E. Watts (5 vols. 4to, 1888 et seq.). In French there are nine versions, besides abridgments: the oldest is Oudin's (printed in 1616), the best Viardot's (1836). In German there are no less than thirteen, from the earliest in 1621 to the latest and best by Ludwig Braunfels in 1883-84. There are as many as ten Russian versions, but most of these are from the French, or abridgments. Franciosini's Italian version appeared as early as 1622, and has been followed by two others; and there are versions in Dutch, Danish, Polish, Portuguese, Swedish, Hungarian, Bohemian, Servian, and Greek. The best Life of Cervantes is by Navarrete; but there is also a good one by D.