tions, the same general character (see articles BUDDHISM, BURMA, &c.); and in Ceylon we find the three classes represented by the dagoba, or relic-shrine, the temple proper, and the vihara or monastery. The labour bestowed on these edifices in the early ages of the Singhalese monarchy is truly astonishing. In the north of the island, ruined cities buried for ages in the depths of the forest have been discovered, revealing monuments that in dimensions may almost compare with the pyramids of Egypt. The most remarkable of these vestiges of an early civilisation is Pollanarrua, the ancient capital of Ceylon; and here is the celebrated Gal-wihara, a rock-hewn temple.

people-the ruined tanks, with which scarcely any. thing of a similar kind, whether ancient or modern, can be compared. Thirty colossal reservoirs, and about 700 smaller tanks, still exist, though for the most part in ruins. The restoration of these magnificent works of irrigation has been for some time carried on by the government. In February 1888 the largest and most important tank in Ceylon, that of Kalawewa, was, after four years of labour, completely restored. It was built 460 A.D. to supply Anuradhapura with water, but has been ruinous for centuries. Now again it contains an area of seven square miles of water 20 feet deep, and supplies smaller tanks more than 50 miles distant.

The history of Ceylon may be conveniently divided into ancient and modern, and the latter into the Portuguese, Dutch, and British periods. The most famous of the Singhalese books is the Mahavansa, a metrical chronicle in the Pali language, extending from the earliest period to 432 A.D., and continued to 1756. The story begins with the invasion of Wijayo (543 B. C.), son of a petty Indian sovereign in the country watered by the Ganges. He subdued the Yakkhos, the aboriginal inhabit ants; founded a dynasty that held undivided sovereignty in Ceylon for nearly eight centuries; and bestowed on his kingdom his patrimonial name of Sihala (whence Singhalese, Ceylon). In the reign of King Devenipiatissa (307 B.C.), Buddhism was established as the national religion, and his reign was further remarkable by the planting of the sacred Bo-tree, 288 B. C.; and now commenced the erection of those stupendous buildings already noticed. The next important epoch in Singhalese history is the usurpation of the Malabars (237 B.C.), foreign mercenaries from the Coromandel coast, to whom the native sovereigns had intrusted the defence of the island. In 1071 A.D. a native dynasty was re-established in the person of Wijayo Bahu, which, for 100 years, delivered the country from the dominion of the Malabars. Prakrama Bahu commenced a reign in 1153, the most renowned in the records of Ceylon. He devoted himself to religion and agriculture, and besides many notable religious edifices, he caused no less than 1470 tanks to be constructed, subsequently known as the seas of Prakrama.' Thirty years after the death of this monarch, the Malabars landed with a large army, and speedily conquered the whole island. In 1235 a native dynasty recovered a part of the kingdom. During the reign of Dharma Prakrama IX. the Portuguese first visited Ceylon (1505); but it was in 1517 that they first formed a permanent settlement at Colombo for trading purposes. Their encroachments soon met with fierce resistance from the patriotic Kandyans. 'Amity, commerce, and religion,' was the Portuguese motto; but their rule in Ceylon is a sad story of rapacity, bigotry, and cruelty. They were at last driven from the island by the Dutch in 1658, after a contest of twenty years, when the fanatical zeal of Roman Catholic sovereigns for the propagation of the faith was replaced by the earnest toil of the Dutch traders to intrench their trading monopolies. But the purely military tenure of the Dutch was destined to give place to the colonisation of the British. It was during the great European war succeeding the French Revolution that the English gained possession of the island. On the 1st August 1795 an expedition under Colonel James Stuart landed at Trincomalee, which was speedily captured, and finally the garri son of Colombo surrendered on the 16th February 1796. By this capitulation, all the Dutch settlements and strongholds in Ceylon were ceded to the English; though the island was not formally an nexed to the British crown till the Peace of Amiens,

27th March 1802. The native sovereigns, however, continued in the possession of their mountain territory; but at length the Kandyan king, Wikrama Raja Singha, after perpetrating the most frightful atrocities on his own people, seized and murdered certain native merchants, British subjects, trading to Kandy. War followed, January 1815; Kandy was taken, and the tyrant sent a captive to the fortress of Vellore. On the 2d March 1815, a treaty was concluded with the native chiefs, by which the king was formally deposed, and his territories annexed to the British crown.

After the settlement of the Kandyan provinces, attention was drawn to the hill country of Ceylon as a probable field for the profitable investment of British capital and energy, and among other agricultural enterprises the cultivation of coffee was entered upon. The condition of soil and climate proved favourable, and the abolition of slavery in the West Indies, and the consequent labour difficulties, caused a rush towards Ceylon, and the area under coffee cultivation rapidly extended. The enterprise, though subject to all the vicissitudes incidental to tropical agriculture, steadily grew, and coffee soon became the staple export from the island; and the revenue directly and indirectly derived from it enabled successive governors to bridge rivers, to make roads and railways, and to restore many of the ancient irrigation works which, in the period antecedent to British rule, had fallen into disrepair. In 1869, however, a fungus (Hemileia vastatrix) attacked the leaves of the coffee-trees, and the energy of the tree which had hitherto produced fruit was now required for the constant reproduction of leaf. Everything which practice or science could suggest was tried to mitigate or overcome the pest, but in spite of all efforts it steadily increased in virulence, and the coffee-planters were obliged to turn their attention to other products of the soil.

Cinchona, cacao, cardamoms, and many other products were introduced with varying success, but it soon became plain that Ceylon was capable of becoming a great tea-producing country, and tea has become the chief factor in restoring the financial equilibrium.

Cinnamon and cocoa-nut cultivation are chiefly in the hands of natives; tea, cinchona, cacao, and cardamom cultivation in the hands of Europeans; and the export table shows how through the energy of the planters new products have to a great extent replaced coffee.

Year ending 30th Sept. 1873 995,493

2,299,844 lb.

Cinchona Bark. Ib.

173,497 6,925,950 14,389,184

Tea. lb.

3,515

2,000,000 are Singhalese, 750,000 Tamil immigrants and settlers, 200,000 Moormen (Mohammedans of Arab descent), 5500 Europeans, 20,000 Eurasian descendants of Portuguese and Dutch, 2500 Veddahs, 22,000 mixed races.

The revenue, which in 1882 was 12,161,570 rupees, was in 1886, 12,682,548 rupees; but owing to the depreciation of the rupee, the value in pounds sterling was £1,140,147 in 1882, and £1,004,035 in 1886. The total annual trade is about £10,000,000. There are 2500 miles of metalled roads; 185 miles of railways; and 120,000 scholars in the government schools, and those of the various religious denominations. See Ceylon, by Sir James Emerson Tennent (2 vols. 1859); Captain Suckling's Ceylon (2 vols. 1876); The Colonial Office List for the current year; Ceylon in the Jubilee Year, by John Ferguson (1887).

Ceyx. See KINGFISHER.

Cezimbra, a coast town of Portugal, about 18 miles S. of Lisbon. Pop. 6815.

gist, was born January 2, 1817, at Briançon. Chabas, FRANÇOIS, a great French EgyptoloThough at first engaged in commerce, he found time to become a learned linguist, but it was not hieroglyphics. till 1851 that he gave himself up to the study of The first results of his studies appeared in 1856, followed by a series of invaluable portant periods of ancient Egyptian history-the books and papers, elucidative chiefly of two imconquest of the country by the Hyksos, and the time of their expulsion. Among the more important of his many books are-Les Pasteurs en Egypte des Temps de l'Exode (1873), and Études sur l'Anti(1868), Histoire de la XIX. Dynastie et spécialement quité historique d'après les Sources égyptiennes (2d ed. 1873). From 1873 to 1877 he edited L'Egyptologie. He died at Versailles, May 17, 1882. Chabasite. See ZEOLITE.

Chablis, a town in the French department of Yonne, 12 miles E. of Auxerre. It gives name to an esteemed white Burgundy (q.v.) wine. Pop.

2363.

Chaco, EL GRAN. See GRAN CHACO.

Chaconne (Fr.), an obsolete dance, probably Spanish (chacona, from Basque chocuna, 'pretty'). The movement is slow, and the music, a series of variations on a ground bass, mostly eight bars in length, appears in sonatas as well as in ballets.

Chad, LAKE. See TSAD.

12,013,886

Between 1883 and 1887 the export of cacao rose from 3588 to 16,638 lb., and of cardamoms from 21,655 to 321,560 lb. Between 1873 and 1887 the export of cinnamon rose from 1,265,757 to Between 1873 and 1883, that of cocoa-nut oil, from 163,274 to 306,209 cwt.; of coir yarn from 56,921 to 98,697 cwt.; of plumbago from 168,627 to 279,057 cwt.; while that of ebony fell from 46,635 to 18,273 cwt. Minor exports are oils, fibres, and dyes.

Ceylon is the largest and most important of what are known as the crown colonies of the British empire. The government is administered by a governor aided by executive and legislative councils (the former consisting of five members, the latter of fifteen, partially elective), and municipal councils. Local boards and village tribunals give a measure of self-government to the people. The population of Ceylon, 2,763,984 at the census of 1881, has risen to about 3,000,000, of whom

Chadwick, EDWIN, C.B., a social reformer, born in the vicinity of Manchester, 24th January 1801, studied law, and was called to the bar in 1830. He attracted the notice of Jeremy Bentham by an article on Life Assurances. He early devoted his attention to questions of social, sanitary, and political science, and was by Lord Grey's government appointed an assistant-commissioner to inquire into the operation of the poor-laws. His report, published in 1833, commanded great attention, and laid the foundation of the later systems of government inspection. On the organisation of the new Poor-law Board, Chadwick was appointed secretary. In connection with this Board, and the General Board of Health, Chadwick for twenty years was energetic in improving the administration of poorlaw funds and the sanitary condition of the country. His report on interments in towns (1843) laid the

foundation of later legislation on the subject. He served on commissions as to the employment of children in factories, on preventable diseases, and on education. On a change being made in the Board of Health in 1854, Chadwick retired with a pension. He afterwards took great interest in promoting competitive examinations for government offices, and indeed in almost all questions of social economy. He was an active member of the Social Science Association. Some of his papers appear in the Transactions of the Statistical Society and of the British Association. Died July 5, 1890. See Chadwick's Work and Works on Health and Social Reform, by Richardson (2 vols. 1885).

Chæronea, a town in ancient Boeotia, near the river Cephissus, memorable for the disastrous defeat of the Athenians here by Philip of Macedon, 338 B. C. This defeat struck a death-blow to the liberties of Greece, and broke the heart of Isocrates; it was the 'dishonest victory' that killed with report that old man eloquent.' A colossal marble lion, together with the bones of 260 Greeks, was dug up here in 1880. Here also Sulla defeated the generals of Mithridates in 86 B.C. The famous Plutarch was a native of Charonea.

Chatoderma, a remarkable primitive gasteropod, which in some respects serves as a connecting link between the worm and snail type. See CHITON.

Chaetodon, a typical genus of a family of bony fishes, known as Squamipennes. The body is much compressed sideways, and consequently high; the scales are more or less smooth, and cover portions of the dorsal and anal fins in such a fashion that the boundary between fins and body is indistinct.

Chaetodon setifer.

The mouth is generally small in front of the snout, and the slender teeth are arranged in bands. The lower rays of the pectoral fins are branched, and the hind fins are situated far forward on the thorax. The Squamipennes, or as some would call them, the Chaetodontidae, are tropical fishes, abounding near coral reefs, and well suited in the beauty of their colouring to such brilliant surroundings. They feed on small animals, are never very large, and but little used for food. Chaetodon itself is a large genus, with some 70 beautiful species from the tropical Atlantic and Indo-Pacific. It has one dorsal fin, and a moderately long snout. In Chelmo the snout is longer, and is used to draw animals from their crevices. It often gets false credit for catching insects by spouting water. Heniochus is another pretty genus with horns on its head. Holacanthus, one species of which is called the 'Emperor of Japan' by the Dutch, is yet more brilliantly adorned, and Pomacanthus is peculiarly variable in its colouring. The Atlantic species of Ephippus (E. faber) is peculiar in the pathologicallike enlargement of some of the bones at the back of the head. The Archer-fish (q.v.) is an allied genus. See Günther, Study of Fishes (1880).

CHAFFINCH

Chatopods (Gr., 'bristle-footed'), a class of worms including familiar types like the Earthworm, the Fisherman's Lobworm, and the Seamouse. They are often included under the title of Annelids or ringed worms. The body consists of numerous more or less similar joints; and the locomotor organs are furnished with or represented by bristles. The class is split into two main orders of Oligochata and Polychaeta, of which the latter is much the larger. The Oligochata have very rudimentary locomotor structures, which are in fact reduced to bristles; they are fresh-water or subterranean in habit; the familiar earthworm (Lumbricus) and certain river and pond worms (e.g. Tubifex and Nais) are common representatives. The Polychata are, with three or four exceptions, marine; the bristles, which are numerous, are fixed in special locomotor outgrowths; and many other characters, such as the possession of antennæ, gills, &c., distinguish them from the earthworm order, and are in obvious association with their very different habits. Many of them, described as errant, lead a free life, and are carnivorous in their diet. The common Nereis, or Alitta, and the Sea-mouse (Aphrodite) are good examples. A large number, however, are sedentary in habit, vegetarian in diet, and often inhabit tubes. The lobworm (Arenicola), the common Serpula, and Terebella are characteristic types. To the two parasitic Myzostomata causing galls' on feathermain orders of Chatopods above mentioned, the cirrus must be added. stars (Crinoids), and the primitive aberrant Saccocommon marine worm which, along with a few Polygordius is another others, is usually regarded as a survival of the ancestral Chatopods or Annelids. See EARTHWORM, LOBWORM, SEA-MOUSE, WORMS, &c.

Chafer, a common name for beetles or coleopterous insects, especially for those which, either in the perfect or larval state, are destructive of plants, particularly of the wood, bark, or roots of trees. The word is seldom used alone, but generally as part of a name, with some prefix; thus, we have Cock-chafer, Rose-chafer, Bark-chafer, &c. Käfer is the German word for beetle.'

Chaffinch (Fringilla cælebs), one of the commonest British birds, a species of Finch (q.v.), and probably that to which the name Finch, now so extended in its signification, originally belonged. Fink, the German form of the name, and pink and twink, still used in England as popular names, have some resemblance in sound to the common call-note of the chaffinch. The whole length of the bird is about six inches. The tail is very slightly forked. The beak is almost equal in breadth and height. The male, in summer, has the top of the head and nape of the neck bluish-gray; the back, chestnut; the wings almost black, with two conspicuous white bars; the tail nearly black. The lower surface is reddish. The colours of the female are much duller than those of the male. The chaffinch is a very widely distributed species, being found in almost all parts of Europe, in some parts of Asia, in the north of Africa, and as far west as the Azores. In the colder northern

countries it is migratory; in more southern regions it is stationary. Linnæus gave it the specific name calebs, from observing that the flocks seen during winter in Sweden consisted chiefly of males, the females having, as he supposed, sought a milder climate. A partial separation of the sexes is observed also in the great winter-flocks in Britain, but it is only partial; and Yarrell thinks that the young males of the previous season, which resemble the females in plumage, are associated with them, and have been mistaken for them. The flocks seen in Britain in

winter are believed to be augmented by migration from Scandinavia. The eggs are usually four or five in number, of pale purplish buff colour, sparingly streaked and spotted with reddish brown. The chaffinch feeds in great part on insects, and does much service in summer by destroying aphides and caterpillars; but eats also seeds, and is sometimes persecuted, because in spring it pulls up and eats young turnips and radishes when in the seedleaf. It is particularly fond of the seeds of beeches and conifers. Great numbers of chaffinches are killed for the table in Italy. In Germany this bird was formerly in the highest esteem as a songbird. Its notes are very clear and loud, but some individuals greatly excel the ordinary multitude of their species. The common Scotch name of the chaffinch is Shilfa.

Chagny, an important railway junction and commercial centre in the French department of Saône-et-Loire, on the Canal du Centre, 32 miles S. of Dijon. As the key of the roads to the Loire district, it has been strongly fortified. Pop. 4291. Chagres, a town of the United States of Colombia, on the N. coast of the Isthmus of Panama, situated at the mouth of the Chagres River. It is a poor place, with a harbour for vessels drawing from 10 to 12 feet of water. The river of the same name rises about 10 miles NE. of Panama, makes an immense bend round to the NE., and enters the Caribbean Sea. Though towards its mouth it varies in depth from 16 to 30 feet, it is yet, by reason at once of its rapidity and its falls, but little available for navigation. The route of the Panama Canal (q.v.) is by the valley of the Chagres for part of its course; and the canal crosses the river repeatedly.

Chaillu, PAUL DU. See DU CHAILLU. Chain, in Surveying (called Gunter's Chain, from its inventor, Edmund Gunter, q. v.), is a measure of 22 yards long, composed of 100 iron links, each of which is thus 7.92 inches long. acre contains 4840 square yards, 10 square chains (22 x 22 x 10 = 4840 square yards) or 100,000 square links make an acre.

Chain Cable. See CABLE.

As an

Chain-mail, or CHAIN-ARMOUR, much used in Europe in the 12th and 13th centuries, and still used in India

88888

Piece of Chain-armour.

and the inte

rior of the

Asiatic continent, consists of hammered iron links, connected together by riveted links so that

each link embraces four

others, and worked into the form of a garment. Such armour was much more flexible and convenient to the wearer than that which was formed of steel or brass plates, but was less fitted to bear the thrust of a lance. See ARMOUR.

Chain-plates, on shipboard (wood vessels), are iron plates bolted below the channels to serve as attachments for the dead-eyes, through which the standing rigging or shrouds and back-stays are rove and secured. In most of the modern iron-steel vessels rigging-screws take the place of the older dead-eyes, the chain-plates to which they are attached consisting simply of flat palms, having an eye projection, riveted to the inside of the sheer or top strake of shell plating.

Chains. Chain-making being a distinct trade of itself, thoroughly reliable chains can only be

made by men trained to the work, although some of the very small sizes of common chains are made by women, boys, and girls. Chains are of two generally distinct kinds-short-link or unstudded (frequently called close-link) chain, and stud-link or stayed chain. The former usually embraces the smaller sizes of chain up to 1 inches, and the latter comprises ships' cables and other heavy chains. Short-link chain is made in the following manner: The end of the bar from which the link is to be made is heated, then cut to gauge, and while still hot is bent into U-form; the free ends are then heated to a white heat and flattened or scarphed by a hammer, and in this state they are brought together and welded so as to form the other end of the link. The flattening or scarphing of the two ends and the closing of them being all done in one heat, the scarphed ends are again heated to welding-point, and the link is placed in a suitable recess under a hollow-faced tool, worked mechanically, which strikes the roughened weld and ultimately finishes it off as smooth as the other end of the link. The result is the finished link, piece of iron is bent in the same way and threaded and when the first has been completed, another or rove through it, and another link formed and finished in the same manner as the first. In this way each successive link is added until the required length of chain is made.

The foregoing illustrates the way in which of chains of 1-inch diameter and over are welded chains generally are made, but as a rule, links at the side instead of at the end, and a stud or stay-pin is welded across from side to side of the link.

The larger sizes of chains and chaincables are made by men, and the expert workman when employed making first-class chains of all descriptions gets an extra price for his skill and labour. Common (not to say inferior) chains, however, are too often welcomed by bargain-loving users if they can at all be made to pass the statutory tests. Chains which stand certain of the standard tests may be found totally unequal to meet certain others, and superior and inferior parts are often purposely mingled in one chain by dishonest makers to cheapen production and defeat the system of testing. The iron used for very superior chains is selected not only for its tensile strength and welding properties, but for its ductility, as high tensile strength is not infrequently possessed by a hard brittle iron, liable to snap upon the application of a sudden jerk, and therefore totally unsuited for chains. The system of testing cables followed by Lloyds' Register Society well exemplifies what should be adopted in the case of all chains. Every 15-fathom length is subject to a fair standard strain, sufficient to detect bad workmanship, by pulling asunder or opening any defective welds, yet not so severe as to injure the nature of the material by crystallising it a result invaritest, however, not being the extreme limit of strain ably produced by overstraining. This standard which the chain ought to bear in actual use at sea, a few links are required to be cut out at random from any part of each 15-fathom length, and submitted to a so-called breaking strain of 50 per cent. in excess of the standard test. If these trial pieces are found to withstand this extra strain satisfactorily, they are then assumed to represent a fair which they belong. average of the strength of that particular length to This operation being gone through with satisfactory results in each length of cable, the whole is then passed, and certified accordingly. Any unsatisfactory lengths are condemned, marked, and sent back to the manufac

turer.

In his treatise on Chain Cables and Chains, Mr T. W. Trail, surveyor-in-chief to the Board of