CHALFONT ST GILES Chalfont St Giles, a village of Buckinghamshire, 16 miles SE. of Aylesbury. Milton's cottage (1665) still stands here. Chalgrove, a village 13 miles SE. of Oxford, the scene of a skirmish in the Civil War between Prince Rupert's cavalry and a parliamentary force under Hampden, in which that patriot received his death-wound, June 18, 1643. Chalice (Lat. calix, 'a cup'). The name has long been applied only to the cups used for the administration of the wine in the holy communion. Anciently made of glass, precious stone, horn, and other substances, chalices have for many centuries been formed of Chalice (1459) at Nettlecombe, County Somerset. (From Cripps's Old English Plate.) fectly purified, is mixed with vegetable colouring matters, such as turmeric, litmus, saffron, and sapgreen, to form pastel colours or coloured chalks; but vegetable colours which contain an acid are changed by it (see CRAYON). The Vienna white of artists is simply purified chalk. In a perfectly purified state it is administered as a medicine to correct acidity in the stomach. Chalk is also extensively used as a manure. See LIME, MANURE. BLACK CHALK is a mineral quite different from common chalk, and apparently receives its name soiling the fingers, and in being used for drawing, from resembling it in meagreness to the touch, in writing, &c. It is also called Drawing-slate. It is of a slaty structure, of a bluish or grayish-black colour, easily cut and broken, and makes a perfectly black mark on paper. It is used for draw silver, or some-ing and as a black colour in painting. It becomes times gold, occared by exposure to heat. It is essentially a kind of sionally enriched with jewels. Clay (q.v.), and derives its colour from carbon, which it contains. It is found associated with Their fashion has schists, &c. in Spain, France, Italy, &c., also in the followed the art coal formation in Scotland.-BRIANÇON CHALK and of the times, FRENCH CHALK are popular names for Soapstone the hemispherical (q.v.).-RED CHALK is ochry red clay-iron ore, bowl and plain consisting of clay and much peroxide of iron. It is of a brownish-red colour, and a somewhat slaty structure, the cross fracture earthy. The coarser varieties are used chiefly by carpenters for making marks on wood; the finer, by painters. It occurs in thin beds in clay-slate and graywacke-slate in some parts of Germany. circular foot of Romanesque or Norman days giving way to a conical bowl and hexagonal foot in the Perpendicular period, and these in turn to more modern shapes, seldom of such beauty and excellence as those of Gothic design. Before the Reformation a crucifix or other sacred device always occupied one side of the foot. The chalice was usually accompanied by a paten, which might serve as a cover to the bowl, as well as for carrying the wafer or bread. In medieval times a chalice of tin or pewter, if not of silver, was placed in the coffin of ecclesiastics at burial. The chalice is the emblem of St John the Evangelist. Old chalices are much sought after by collectors. The glass 'Luck of Edenhall,' preserved in the family of Musgrave, near Penrith, is apparently an old chalice. The use of the mixed chalice, the mingling of water with the wine used in the Lord's Supper, and in the Roman rite, has been matter of controversy in the Church of England. The chalice veil or corporale was a covering for the chalice. Chalk, a soft earthy variety of limestone or carbonate of lime, forming great strata, and claiming the attention of the geologist even more than of the mineralogist (see CRETACEOUS SYSTEM). It is generally of a yellowish-white colour, but sometimes snow-white. It is easily broken, and has an earthy fracture, is rough and very meagre to the touch, and adheres slightly to the tongue. It generally contains a little silica, alumina, or magnesia, sometimes all of these. Although often very soft and earthy, it is sometimes so compact that it can be used as a building-stone; and it is used for this purpose either in a rough state, or sawn into blocks of proper shape and size. It is burned into quicklime, and nearly all the houses in London are cemented with mortar so procured. The siliceous particles being separated by pounding and diffusing in water, it becomes whiting, of which the domestic uses are familiar to every one. Carpenters and others use it for making marks, which are easily effaced the blackboard and piece of chalk are now common equally in the lecture-rooms of universities and in the humblest village-schools. Chalk, per Chalking the Door, a mode of warning tenants to remove from burghal tenements, long known and still in use in Scotland. It is thus described by Hunter in his work on Landlord and Tenant: A burgh-officer, in presence of witnesses, chalks the most patent door forty days before Whitsunday, having made out an execution of chalking,' in which his name must be inserted, and which must be subscribed by himself and two witnesses. This ceremony now proceeds simply on the verbal order of the proprietor. The execution of chalking is a warrant under which decree of removal will be pronounced by the burgh court, in virtue of which the tenant may be ejected on the expiration of a charge of six days. See EJECTMENT. ing scientific exploration of the open sea sent out Challenger Expedition, a circumnavigatby the British government in 1872-76-earlier expeditions being those of the Lightning (1868) and Porcupine (1870). In 1872 the Challenger, a corvette of 2306 tons, was completely fitted out and furnished with every scientific appliance for examining the sea from surface to bottom-natural history work-room, chemical laboratory, aquarium, &c. The ship was given in charge to a naval surveying staff under Captain Nares; and to a scientific staff, with Professor (afterwards Sir) Wyville Thomson at their head, for the purpose of sounding the depths, mapping the basins, and determining the physical and biological conditions of the Atlantic, the Southern and the Pacific Oceans. With this new commission, the Challenger weighed anchor at Sheerness on the 7th December 1872, and on the evening of the 24th May 1876 she dropped anchor at Spithead, having in these three and a half years cruised over 68,900 nautical miles, and made investigations at 362 stations, at each of which were determined the depth of channel; the bottom, surface, and intermediate temperatures, currents, and fauna; and the atmospheric and meteorological conditions. The route was by Madeira, the Canaries, the West Indies, Nova Scotia, Bermudas, Azores, Cape Verd, Fernando Noronha, Bahia, Tristan d'Acunha, Cape of Good Hope, Kerguelen, Melbourne, the Chinese Sea, Hong Kong, Japan, Valparaiso, Magellan's Strait, Monte Video, Vigo, and Portsmouth. Between the Admiralty Isles and Japan the Challenger made her deepest sounding, on the 23d March 1875, 4575 fathoms (equal to a reversed Himalaya), the deepest sounding on record except two. See the copious Reports on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger, edited by Sir Wyville Thomson and Dr John Murray, which mark an era in deep-sea exploration. They fall into a Narrative (2 vols. 1882-85), Zoology (30 vols. 1880-89), Physics and Chemistry (3 vols. 1884-89), Botany (2 vols. 1885-86). To these invaluable reports many articles in the present work are indebted for materials and illustrations. See also the works of Sir C. Wyville Thomson, H. M. Moseley, Spry, Lord George Campbell, Wild; and the articles in this work on ATLANTIC OCEAN, PACIFIC OCEAN, SOUNDING, and especially SEA. Challis, JAMES, astronomer, born at Braintree in Essex, 12th December 1803, graduated senior wrangler and first Smith's prizeman at Cambridge in 1825, was ordained in 1830, and in 1836 became professor of Astronomy at Cambridge, where he died 3d December 1882. He was also till 1861 director of the Cambridge Observatory, and published a number of works, including 12 vols. of astronomical observations (1832-64). In August 1846, whilst carefully preparing to test Adams' results, he twice unconsciously noted the position of the planet Neptune before its discovery at Berlin on 23d September. See ADAMS (J. Č.). CHALMERS Chalmers, GEORGE, Scottish antiquary, was born in 1742 at Fochabers in Elginshire, and was educated there and at King's College, Aberdeen. Having afterwards studied law at Edinburgh, in 1763 he went to North America, where he practised as a lawyer at Baltimore till the breaking out of the war of independence. Then returning to Britain, he settled in London (1775), and was appointed clerk to the Board of Trade in 1786. The duties of this office he continued to discharge with diligence and ability till his death on 31st May 1825. Of his thirty-three works the chief is Caledonia; an Account, Historical and Typo graphical, of North Britain (vols. i.-iii. 1807-24). In 1888-89 it was reprinted at Paisley in 7 vols., comprising the matter prepared for the unpublished 4th vol., and furnished with a much-needed index. Among his other publications are 4 Collection of Treaties between Great Britain and other Powers (2 vols. 1790); Lives of Defoe, Paine, Ruddiman, and Mary, Queen of Scots; and editions of Allan Ramsay and Lyndsay. Chalmers, GEORGE PAUL, R.S.A., was born at Montrose in 1833 (not 1836). He served as errandboy to a surgeon, and apprentice to a ship-chandler; but he was resolved to become an artist, and in 1853 he came to Edinburgh, and studied under Scott Lauder. His Favourite Air,' attracted attention in 1854, and in 1867 he was elected an A.R.S.A., in 1871 an R.S.A. His untimely death at Edin burgh (28th February 1878) was due to injuries received some days before either from violence or by misadventure. His works are distinguished by admirable breadth, effective concentration of lighting, freedom of handling, and rich and powerful colouring. He executed some important portraits. His landscapes, mainly of his later years, include 'End of the Harvest' (1873) and Running Water' (1875). He is represented in the National Gallery of Scotland by The Legend,' a large unfinished subject-picture, which, like Prayer (1871), has been etched by Rajon. See his Memoir (1879). Challoner, RICHARD, a learned Roman Catholic prelate, born at Lewes in Sussex, September 29, 1691. Becoming a Roman Catholic, he was sent in 1704 to the English College at Douay, where he became a professor, and remained until 1730. In that year he was sent to labour in London, and here he served as a missionary priest until 1741, when he was raised to the episcopal dignity as Bishop of Debra and coadjutor of Bishop Petre, whom he succeeded as Vicar Apostolic of the Chalmers, THOMAS, D.D., LL.D., was born at London district in 1758. During the No Popery' Anstruther, in Fife, 17th March 1780, educated riots of 1780 he was secreted near Highgate, and he at the university of St Andrews (from 1791), and at died in London, January 12, 1781. Of Challoner's the age of nineteen licensed to preach the gospel. numerous controversial treatises, the best known In 1803 he was ordained minister of the parish is his Catholic Christian Instructed, an answer to of Kilmany, in Fifeshire, about 9 miles from St Conyers Middleton's Letters from Rome. His Andrews. At this period his attention was almost Garden of the Soul is still the most popular prayer- entirely absorbed by mathematics and natural book with English Catholics, and his revision of the philosophy. He carried on mathematical and Douay version of the Bible (5 vols. 1750) is sub-chemistry classes in St Andrews during the winter stantially the Bible used by them. Of his historical works the most valuable are his memoirs of missionary priests and other Catholics of both sexes who suffered death or imprisonment in Eng land on account of their religion, from the year 1577 till the end of the reign of Charles II. (2 vols. 1741), and his Britannia Sancta (2 vols. 1745), a collection of the lives of British and Irish saints. Chalmers, ALEXANDER, an industrious biographer and miscellanous writer, was born at Aberdeen in 1759. After a course of study at his native university, he abandoned a projected medical career, and repaired to London, where he soon became an active writer for the press and the busiest of booksellers' hacks. He died in London, 10th December 1834. His editions of Burns, Beattie, Fielding, Gibbon, Bolingbroke, Shakespeare, Johnson, and Boswell's Johnson are now of no importance; but that of The British Essayists, in 45 vols., is still esteemed as accurate and handy. His prefaces to Walker's' Classics (45 vols.), and his enlarged edition of Johnson's Collection of the Poets (21 vols.), contain much honest work. But his reputation depends mainly on the General Biographical Dictionary (32 vols. 1812-14). of 1803-1804, and by his enthusiasm and lucidity of exposition obtained for himself a high reputation as a teacher. In 1808 he published an Inquiry into the Extent and Stability of National Resources. Shortly after this, domestic calamities and severe illness rendered him keenly susceptible of religious impressions. Having to prepare an article on Christianity for Brewster's Edinburgh Encyclopædia, he commenced a thorough study of the evidences, and rose from his investigations convinced that Christianity was the truth, and the Bible the veritable word of God.' Then the great genius of the man broke forth like sunshine. He grew earnest, devout, and faithful to his pastoral duties. In July 1815 he was translated to the Tron Church and parish, Glasgow, where his magnificent oratory took the city by storm. His Astronomical Discourses (1817) and Commercial Discourses (1820) had a widely extended popularity. In 1817 he visited London, where his preaching excited as great a sensation as at home. But Chalmers' energies could not be exhausted by mere oratory. Discovering that his parish was in a state of great ignorance and immorality, he began to devise a scheme for overtaking and checking and soon acquired a great reputation as a skilful and witty delineator of the humorous side of Parisian life. In 1843 began his famous connection with the Charivari, in which paper and in the Journal des Pélerinages he continued to delight his fellow-citizens until close upon his death on 6th September 1879. He was profoundly sceptical, but not unkindly, and obtained, as Edmond About pointed out, the success of an homme d'esprit. His masterpieces were chiefly social rather than political, and among his skits may be mentioned Proudhomana, Bagneurs et Buveurs d'Eau, Souvenirs de Garrison, and L'Exposition de Londres. Several good collections of his comic illustrations have been made-for instance, Douze Années Comiques (1880), with an introduction by L. Halévy, and Les Folies Parisiennes (1883), with an introduction by Gérôme. In Sala's Paris herself again (1882) are a good many specimens of Cham's art. Chama, a genus of bivalve molluscs, the only surviving type of a family which was once extremely numerous and abundant, especially in the Jurassic and Chalk times. The genus is represented by about half a hundred living forms, restricted to warmer waters, and especially common about coral reefs. The general appearance is somewhat clamlike, the valves are unequal, of considerable thickness, and covered with leaf or scale-like outgrowths. They are very passive animals, usually fixed, with the mantle margins fused together, with very small foot and respiratory apertures, with well-developed hinge and an external ligament, and often of a bright colour. Some forty fossil species are known from Cretaceous and Tertiary strata, and the genus is of interest as the sole survivor of a once much larger family. Chamade. See PARSLEY. Chamæleon (Gr. chamaileon, ground lion'), a large genus of lizards, forming a very distinct family. Among the most distinctive features may be noted the soft tuberculated skin, with its power of changing colour; the coiled tail, adapted for curling round the branches of trees; the division of the toes of fore and hind feet into two bundles; the absence of an external ear-drum or tympanic membrane; the long worm-like insect-catching tongue, capable of extremely rapid protrusion. Even more remarkably distinctive, however, are certain peculiarities in the skeleton, and especially in the skull, which separate the chameleons from all other lizards. Description.-The body is flattened, and bears a toothed crest of skin along the back. The head is Chamæleon. triangular, surmounted by a ridge. The animal stands unusually high upon its legs. The fore-feet are divided into three united internal digits and two external; the reverse (and the digits, corresponding to our great and second toes, form one bundle, and the other three-external-another CHAMELEON united group) occurs in the hind-feet. The digits are tipped by long sharp claws. The long compressed tail is curled ventral wards. The mouthaperture is small, but the tongue extremely long. It is the most active part of the animal, is cupshaped at the end, covered with a viscid secre tion, and very efficient in insect-catching. The large lateral eyes, with circular lids leaving only a small aperture, are very active, and can be rapidly turned in all directions, a possibility which to some extent compensates for the stiffness of the head. The skin is soft, loose, and shagreen-like, the scales being very small. The glandular pores common on the thighs and near the anus of lizards are absent. The habit The chama Among the internal peculiarities may be noted the largeness of the lungs, which admit of being greatly distended, so as to puff out the body into marked plumpness. They appear to be connected with surrounding air-spaces. the chamæleon has of thus blowing itself out, taken along with its power of fasting, gave origin to the ancient supposition that it fed on air. The skeletal peculiarities are numerous. leons differ from all lizards except the Amphisbonas (q.v.), in having no 'columella' or epiptery goid skull-bone, and no interorbital septum, and from all other forms in the fact that the pterygoid and quadrate bones are not united. The latter is firmly fused to the skull, and the parietals are also peculiar in their firm attachments. The teeth are confined to a ridge along the summit of the jaws. The vertebræ are hollow in front; the breastbone is small, and only a few anterior ribs reach it; as in the geckos, many of the posterior ribs are united ventrally by hoops across the abdomen; there are no clavicles; the scapula and coracoid of the shoulder-girdle and the ilia of the hip-girdle are peculiarly long and narrow. Life and Habit.-Except as regards tongue and strictly arboreal lizards, moving very slowly, in eyes, the chamæleons are very sluggish. They are perfect silence, and waiting rather than hunting for their insect prey. At a distance of several inches, about half as long as the body in some cases, they can most unerringly catch the unconscious insect. Probably the most familiar fact about chamæleons is their power of changing colour. Under the thin outer skin there are two layers of pigment-containing cells, the outer bright yellow, the inner brown to black. Under nerve control the disposition and expansion of the pigment-containing cells vary, and this produces change of colour. The change depends much more on internal emotions, expressing themselves in nervous stimulus and inhibition, than on external physical influences. The change appears to be rather emotional than protective. Most chamaleons are oviparous, and lay 30 to 40 thin-shelled eggs, which are deposited in an excavated hollow and covered over with earth and leayes. Moseley has described a South African species which brings forth its young alive. Species and Distribution.-The genus Chameleo is a large one, and some naturalists split it up. Chamæleons are especially at home in the Ethiopian region, but may occur beyond its limits. The commonest of the numerous species is C. vulgaris, which is abundant in Africa, and is also found in South Europe (Andalusia). The predominant colour varies in different species. Many males are adorned with horns on the head. One form, distinguished as a distinct genus (Rhampholeon), has a tail too short for clasping purposes, but this loss is made up for by accessory structures on the feet. The chamæleon was well described by Aristotle, but in later days became the subject of numerous ridiculous fables. It was also in repute for supposed medicinal virtues. See LIZARD; Chama'rops, a genus of palins, remarkable for its wide range into northern climates throughout the world, and of which one species, C. humilis, is the only palm truly indigenous to Europe. This species, the common Fan-palm, is widely distributed through Southern Europe, extending as far north as Nice. This palm is so tolerant of a cold climate, that a specimen has lived in the open air in the Botanic Garden of Edinburgh for more than fifty years, with the protection of matting in very severe winters. It forms dense furze-like thickets from the suckers which arise from its creeping roots, but when these are not allowed to grow, its stem may reach a height of 20 feet or more. In Algeria it is troublesome to agriculturists, but its growth is increasingly becoming of profit on account of the excellent fibre yielded by its stem. This the Arabs mix with camel's hair and make into hut-covers, &c.; cordage and sailcloth, paper and pasteboard, are also prepared from it, and it also finds many uses under the title of vegetable or African horsehair. The leaves are also used in paper-making, and furnish a convenient thatching material. This species is sometimes called palmetto in Europe. The true Palmetto (q.v.) is C. (Sabal) palmetto of Florida and Carolina (see also BRAZILIAN GRASS). In China and Japan C. excelsa and C. Fortuni are specially prominent; both can be grown in the open air in the south of England. Chamalari, a peak (23,944 feet) of the Himalayas, between Tibet and Bhutan, 140 miles E. of Mount Everest. of state from at least the 13th century, and in 1406 When Chamba, one of the Punjab Hill States, immediately SE. of Cashmere, with an estimated area of 3180 sq. m. Pop. (1881) 115,773, nearly all Hindus. It is shut in on nearly all sides by lofty hills, and traversed by two ranges of snowy peaks Chamberlain, THE LORD GREAT, is a herediand glaciers, with fertile valleys to the south and tary officer of great antiquity, and formerly of west. The banks of the Ravi and Chenab, two of great importance. He has the government of the the five great Punjab rivers, are clothed with palace at Westminster, and upon solemn occasions mighty forests, leased to the British government, the keys of Westminster Hall and of the Court of which takes £10,000 to £20,000 worth of timber Requests are delivered to him. At these times the from them every year. Agriculture and grazing Usher, and the door-keepers are under his orders. Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod, the Yeoman are the leading industries; iron, copper, and slate are plentiful; and the mountains teem with game. At coronations, state trials, banquets, and the like, The principality came into the hands of the British the fitting-up of the Hall devolves on him. in 1846, who in 1847 assigned it to the present Chamberlain delivers the sword of state to any the King goes to parliament, the Lord Great line of rajahs; an annual tribute is paid, reduced, member of the administration whom he chooses, since the establishment of a British sanatorium and two cantonments among the hills, to £500. to be borne before His Majesty, he himself walkChambal, a principal tributary of the Jumna parliament he has charge of the House of Lords, ing on his right hand. During the sitting of River, rises in the Vindhya Range, 2019 feet above and issues tickets of admission on the opensea-level, flows in a north-easterly direction, and ing or prorogation of parliament. Some fees and after a course of 650 miles falls into the Junna perquisites belong to him. rains its volume is greater than that of the Jumna. 40 miles below the town of Etawah. In heavy ferred by Henry I. in 1101 on Alberic de Vere. Chamber, of a firearm, is the name given to Mary, daughter of John de Vere, sixteenth Earl of Oxford, married Peregrine Bertie, the brave 'when its diameter is not the same as the Calibre of their last male descendant in 1779, the honour, Lord Willoughby and on the death jointly to his sisters and co-heiresses-e.g. the Lady This office was con smaller in diameter than the bore, to prevent any air-space behind the projectile, but now that much Willoughby de Eresby and the Marchioness of cartridge to be used, and so prevent the dangerous alternately. They tend to weaken the gun, but enable a shorter deputies its duties have since been discharged heavier charges are fired, they are made larger. Cholmondeley, by whose descendants or their See CANNON, RIFLED ARMS. Chamberlain, or nobleman, or an officer appointed by a king domestic and ceremonial duties. by a corporation, to perform CHAMBERLAIN has been one of the principal officers The LORD Chamberlain, THE RIGHT HON. JOSEPH, M.P., is the eldest son of the late Mr Joseph Chamberlain, and was born in London in July 1836. He was educated at University College School, and entered his father's screw factory at Birmingham (the name of the firm being Nettlefold), from which, |