CHAMPAIGN

-so much like genuine champagne, as to deceive even the connoisseur. And much champagne is made on French methods in the United States, not only in California but in some of the Atlantic states. Altogether, it is estimated that the French district produces 1,100,000 hectolitres (24,200,000 gallons) of genuine champagne, of which, however, the finest growths make but a small part.

Champaign, a city of Illinois, 128 miles SSW. of Chicago by rail. It has furniture and wagon factories, a female seminary, and the Illinois Industrial University (1868). Pop. (1890) 5827. Champaran, a British Indian district in the NW. corner of Behar, with an area of 3531 sq. m. Champarty, or CHAMPERTY (a Norman-French word derived from campi pars the right of the feudal lord to take part of the produce of land cultivated by his tenants), means in English law a bargain whereby the one party is to assist the other in recovering property, and is to share in the proAll such bargains are illegal, and therefore ceeds. null and void. More particularly an agreement to advance funds, or supply evidence, or professional assistance, for remuneration contingent on success, and proportional to, or to be paid out of property recovered, is illegal; so is a purchase by a solicitor from his client of the subject matter of a pending suit; so is every such purchase, if the real object is only to enable the purchaser to maintain the suit. A man may, however, lawfully sell evidence, and may lawfully purchase an interest in property, though adverse claims exist which make litigation necessary for realising that interest. 'The sale of a mere right to sue is bad, the right to complain of a fraud is not a marketable commodity.' Champarty, as one form of Maintenance (q. v.), was made criminal by various old English statutes, but these are never enforced, and the Criminal Law Commission recommended their repeal. In Scotland there is no law against maintenance and champarty. There is a common-law doctrine against what were in the Roman law called pacta de quota litis-i.e. purchases of litigations by professional men connected with the suit, who thus had exceptional advantages in making such a contract. But this would not probably be held to strike against an agreement by a non-professional person to advance funds for litigation on terms depending on the result, provided the terms were not extortionate or unconscionable. A Scottish act of 1594 prohibits the purchases of pleas by advocates or agents. In both countries a solicitor can lawfully agree to charge nothing except in event of success; and by recent statute, agreements for the division of profits between town and country agents are made legal. Although there are traces of the law of champarty in the United States, the American law resembles that of Scotland more than that of England. Contracts by solicitors for contingent fees, to the extent even of one-half the property in dispute, have been sustained. In general, however, the American law construes professional contracts as merely giving security for the true worth of the services rendered.

Champfleury, the assumed name of JULES FLEURY-HUSSON, French author, born at Laon, 10th September 1821. In a number of early pieces for the theatre, as well as later romances, he achieved some distinction as a realistic writer. Works of greater value, however, are those on the history of caricature, of literature, and of art, from 1825 to 1840, and his Bibliographie Céramique (1882). Died

Champion (Low Lat. campio, from Low Lat. campus, a combat,' whence also A.S. camp, a fight'). In the judicial combats of the middle ages, it was allowed to women, children, and

aged persons, except in cases of high treason or of parricide, to appear in the lists by a representative. Such a hired combatant was called a champion. Those who followed this profession were generally of the lowest class, and were held disreputable (see BATTLE, WAGER OF). At a later period, in the age of chivalry, the word champion came to have a more dignified acceptation, and signified a knight who entered the lists on behalf of an injured lady, of a child, or of any one incapable of self-defence (see CHIVALRY). In Eng. land, the crown had its champion, the Champion of England, who, mounted on horseback and armed to the teeth, challenged, at every coronation at Westminster, all who should deny the king to be the lawful sovereign. This office is said by Dugdale to have been conferred by William the Conqueror on Robert de Marmion, with the Lincolnshire manor of Scrivelsby; and by reason of his tenure of that manor, the championship was claimed under Dymoke, who died in 1875, was the nineteenth Henry IV. by Thomas Dymoke. Henry Lionel the ceremonies of the championship were last exermember of this family who held the office. of articles in Notes and Queries (1887). cised at the coronation of George IV. See a series

But

Champlain', a beautiful lake separating the states of New York and Vermont, and penetrating, at its north end, about 6 miles into the Dominion of Canada. Lying 91 feet above sea-level, it is 110 miles long, by from 1 to 15 broad, empties itself into the St Lawrence by the Richelieu River, and has communication by canal with the Hudson. The lake, now an important trade channel, was the scene of several incidents of the French and Indian revolutionary wars; and here a British flotilla was defeated by the Americans, 11th September 1814. It was discovered by Champlain in 1609.

Champlain, SAMUEL DE, French governor of Canada, and founder of Quebec, was born at Brouage in Saintonge in 1567, and in 1603 made his first voyage to Canada. In 1604-7 he was engaged in exploring the coasts, and on his third voyage in 1608 he founded Quebec. In 1612 he was appointed lieutenant of Canada (under an honorary governor); and the following years were occupied with attacks on the Iroquois, explorations of the interior, and journeys to France, until 1629, when he had to surrender to an English fleet, and was carried captive to England. Liberated in 1632, he returned to Canada in 1633, and died there in 1635. He published several works, reprinted at Quebec, in 4 vols. 1870.

Champlain Period, the name given by Professor Dana to the period succeeding the glacial, and therefore to some extent equivalent to the postglacial period of English geologists. See PLEISTOCENE.

Champollion, JEAN FRANÇOIS, the founder of modern Egyptology, distinguished from his elder brother as Champollion the younger,' was born December 23, 1791, at Figeac, in the French department of Lot. He was educated at Grenoble, and devoted himself from his boyhood to the study of oriental languages, especially Coptic. In 1807 he went to Paris to pursue these studies, and in 1816 he became professor of History at the Lyceum of Grenoble. He had already published (1811-14) the first two volumes of a large work entitled L'Egypte sous les Pharaons (3 vols.), in which he reproduced, by means of Coptic documents, the national geography of Egypt, when he was expelled from his chair for his Bonapartist sympathies. Comparison of the monuments with the MSS. led him to the conviction that the three systems of Egyptian writing, the hieratic, demotic,

CHANCELLOR

The Russian minister of Foreign Affairs is sometimes called Vice-chancellor. Besides these statechancellors, there were officers in many other capacities to whom the title was given. Every bishop has his chancellor in the Church of Rome, and there are still chancellors of cathedrals, dioceses, universities, &c.

Chancellor, LORD. It is usually said that the existence of the office in England, as in the other states of Europe, is to be ascribed to the influence which the constitution of the Roman empire had on the constitutions of the modern nations. This influence was exercised in no small measure through the medium of the church, the profession of the law being generally exercised by ecclesiastics; and it is for this reason, probably, that the bishop and the king are furnished with officers bearing the same title, and exercising analogous functions. Soon after the Norman Conquest the English chancellor became a judicial officer of high rank (see CHANCERY), and a confidential adviser of the sovereign in state affairs. Being charged with the supervision of charters and other instruments, he obtained the custody of the great seal. The office of chancellor, or Keeper (q.v.), which in 1576 declared to be exactly the same, is created without writ or patent, by the mere delivery of the great seal. The chancellor, if a baron, takes precedence of every temporal lord not a member of the royal family, and of all bishops except the Archbishop of Canterbury. To slay the chancellor The chancellor is a privy-councillor by his office, and prolocutor, or speaker of the House of Lords, by prescription. Though the

was

form in which his tenure of office is terminated is by the resumption of the great seal by the Sovereign, the chancellor is now always a cabinet minister, and resigns office with the party to which he is attached. He has the appointment of all justices of the peace throughout the kingdom, but this privilege he exercises generally on the recommendation of the lord-lieutenants. But the most important, and, as it now seems, somewhat anomalous branch of his patronage, arises out of his having been originally an ecclesiastic. Though the last bishop who held the office was John Williams, Archbishop of York, who was Lord Keeper from 1621 to 1625, the chancellor still continues to be patron of a large number of crown livings (though in 1863 about 300 were sold to augment the incomes of those sold and those retained), and visitor of all hospitals and colleges of the king's foundation. As representing the paternal character of the sovereign, again, the chancellor is the general protector of all infants, idiots, and lunatics, and has the supervision of all charitable uses in the kingdom. His jurisdiction in lunacy' is committed to him by special delegation from the sovereign. As regards his judicial patronage, the arrangement is, that the chancellor appoints in general all the judges of the superior courts, except the chief-justice, who is nominated by the prime-minister of the day. He also appoints the judges of the county courts, and various subordinate officers. All these functions the chancellor performs in addition to his extensive duties as a judge in the House of Lords, the Privy-council, the Court of Appeal, and the Chancery Division of the High Court of Justice. Objection has often been taken to the combination of judicial and political offices in the same person, but the proposal to appoint a minister of justice has not yet found favour. The salary of the chancellor is £10,000 a year, and he has an annuity of £5000 on retiring from office.

Among the notable Lord Chancellors of England have been Cardinal Wolsey (1515), Sir Thomas

More (1529), Bishop Gardiner (1553), Sir Francis Bacon (1617), Hyde, Earl of Clarendon (1660), Ashley, Earl of Shaftesbury (1672), Lords Jeffreys (1685), Hardwicke (1737), Thurlow (1778), Eldon (1801, 1807), Erskine (1806), Lyndhurst (1827, 1834, 1841), Brougham (1830), Carnworth (1852, 1865), Chelmsford (1858, 1866), Campbell (1859), Westbury (1861), Cairns (1868, 1874), Hatherley (1868), Selborne (1872, 1880), Halsbury (1885), Herschell (1886), Halsbury again (1886). See Lord Campbell's Lives of the Chancellors (1845-47). The office of Chancellor of Scotland, which was analogous to that of England, was abolished at the Union, a keeper of the Great Seal (q.v.) being appointed. The English chancellor is described as Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain and Ireland; but in Scotland he has scarcely any jurisdiction, and in Ireland there is a separate chancellor, whose powers and duties are similar to those of the English chancellor.

CHANCELLOR OF A CATHEDRAL is an officer who formerly had charge of the chapter library, custody of the common seal, superintendence of the choir practices, and headship of the cathedral schools; sometimes being also visitor of all church schools in the diocese. Hence he was often styled Scholasticus or Capischolius (= Caput Schola). These functions are now generally in abeyance.

CHANCELLOR OF A DIOCESE is, as legal adviser to the bishop, an ecclesiastical judge, uniting the functions of vicar-general and official principal, appointed to assist the bishop in questions of ecclesiastical law, and hold his courts for him. By an act of Henry VIII. it is provided that he may be a layman, whether married or single, provided he be doctor of the civil law, lawfully create and made in some university. By the canons of 1603 he must be a bachelor of law, at the least, or a master of arts. There are certain cases, however, in which the bishop must sit in person.

For other Chancellors, see UNIVERSITY, EXCHEQUER, LANCASTER (DUCHY OF).

Chancellor, RICHARD, a daring English seaman, who seems to have been brought up in the household of the father of Sir Philip Sidney, and was chosen in 1553 as captain of the Bonaventure and pilot-general' of Sir Hugh Willoughby's expedition in search of a North-east Passage to India. The ships were parted in a storm off the Lofoden Islands, and Chancellor, after waiting seven days at Vardöhus, the rendezvous that had been agreed upon, proceeded alone into the White Sea, and travelled thence overland to the court at Moscow, where he was very hospitably treated, and was able to conclude a treaty giving freedom of trade to English ships. His interesting account of Russia was published in Hakluyt's Navigations. Next spring Chancellor rejoined his ship and returned to England, where his hopeful reports led to the establishment soon after of the Muscovy Company. In the summer of 1555 he made a second voyage in the Bonaventure to the White Sea, and was at Moscow once more in the succeeding winter. In July 1556 he set sail on his voyage homewards, but on 10th November was lost in the wreck of his ship in Aberdour Bay off the Aberdeenshire coast.

Chancellorsville, a post-station of Spottsylvania county, Virginia, near the south bank of the Rappahannock, 11 miles W. of Fredericksburg. In a desperate battle here, May 2 and 3, 1863, General Lee defeated the Federal forces under Hooker. The Confederates, however, suffered a severe loss in Stonewall Jackson (q.v.), who was accidentally wounded by his own men.

Chance-medley and Chaud-medley are law expressions, which practically both mean the

same thing, that a particular homicide was justifiable because it was done in the hot blood caused by an unprovoked assault. The phrase has no reference to homicide by accident. See MANSLAUGHTER, SANCTUARY.

Chancery, the office of a chancellor or ambassador; a place in which writs, &c. are prepared and formally recorded. In England the Chancery was in early times the office in which writs and forms of process were prepared; some of these forms being kept in the Hanaper or hamper, and some in the Petty Bag. When the chancellor became a judicial officer of the first rank, the COURT OF CHANCERY exercised a very wide jurisdiction. The court could not maintain its hold on criminal cases, or on civil cases in which the common-law courts could do adequate justice; but the equitable jurisdiction of the court was established, after a keen struggle with the common lawyers. The assistance of the chancellor, as keeper of the king's conscience,' was invoked in cases where the common law might work injustice. A trustee, for example, was in law the owner of the trust property, but the Court of Chancery, which acted in personam, would compel him to render an account of his trust to the beneficial owner. This power to enforce equitable claims gave the court an administrative jurisdiction which was used for the protection of infants, married women, mortgagors, &c. The prejudice of the common lawyers against the court was due to the fact that its extensive powers were exercised at the discretion of the chancellor, and not according to settled rules. So late as the time of Charles II., Shaftesbury was thought to be a good chancellor, though he was not a lawyer. A succession of eminent chancellors, from Lord Nottingham to Lord Eldon, developed the rules of equity into a logical system. They did so, it must be admitted, at the expense of unfortunate suitors; and the Court of Chancery became a byword for delay and expense. Some of the evils satirised, and somewhat exaggerated, by Dickens in Bleak House (1853) have been removed by modern legislation.

The judges of the Court of Chancery were the Lord Chancellor, the Master of the Rolls (originally a subordinate officer, but afterwards an independ ent judge), a Vice-chancellor added in 1813, and two more Vice-chancellors added in 1841, when the equity business of the Court of Exchequer was transferred. Two Lords Justices of Appeal were added in 1851. On the passing of the Judicature Acts the inconvenient and indefensible distinction between courts of equity and law was abolished, and the judges of the Court of Chancery became members of the Court of Appeal, or of the Chancery Division of the High Court of Justice.

Among the officers of the Court of Chancery were the MASTERS IN CHANCERY, whose office is now abolished, their duties being for the most part assigned to the chief-clerks in the Chancery Division. The office of Accountant-general is also abolished, and Her Majesty's Paymaster-general is charged with the duty of accounting for funds ' in Chancery'-i.e. for cash and stocks standing in the account of any cause or matter before the court. The Pay Office return for 1886 shows the following remarkable figures: Accounts open, 39,944; balance of stocks, &c. (exclusive of foreign securities), £71,946,527; balance of cash, £3,931,054. Under the Chancery Funds Act, 1872, unclaimed balances are transferred to the National Debt Commissioners, but the Consolidated Fund is liable in respect of any claim on these balances under an order of the court.

In various British colonies Courts of Chancery have been established, and the distinction between courts of law and equity has been preserved. But

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CHANDLER

in the colonies and the United States, as in England, the fusion of law and equity' has been effected by legislation. The anomalies of the old system have been removed; but many of the distinctive doctrines and rules of the Court of Chancery remain. In several of the original thirteen states there are distinct Courts of Chancery, but in most of the United States equity powers have been conferred on the higher law-courts, and the principles of equity are administered therein. By the United States constitution and several Acts of Congress, equity powers commensurate with those of the Court of Chancery in England were conferred on the Federal Courts.

The CHANCERY OFFICE, in Scotland, is an office in the General Register House at Edinburgh, managed by a director, in which all royal charters of novodamus, patents of dignities, gifts of offices, remissions, legitimations, presentations, commissions, and other writs appointed to pass the Great and Quarter Seals, are recorded. Prior to 1874 a great number of royal charters by progress passed through this office; and this is still done with regard to precepts from Chancery in favour of heirs in crown holdings. It is the duty of the director to keep a record of the decrees of service pronounced in favour of heirs by the Sheriff of Chancery, who holds a special court in Edinburgh for considering such petitions, and to send printed indexes of his record to the sheriff-clerks in the various counties. record kept by the director also includes the decrees of service pronounced in the different sheriff-courts, and of these the director is bound to furnish extracts. See GREAT SEAL.

Chancre. See SYPHILIS.

The

Chanda, chief town of a district of India, on the south-west frontier of the Central Provinces, 90 miles S. of Nagpur. Its stone battlemented walls are 5 miles round, and 15 to 20 feet high. Pop. (1881) 16,137. Chandausi, a town of the North-west Provinces of India, 27 miles S. of Moradabad. Pop. (1881) 27,521.

of Gwalior. It is now an insignificant place, but Chanderi, a town of Central India, 105 miles S. its fort and many ruined buildings attest its strength and splendour in former times, when it is said to have contained 14,000 stone houses, 384 markets, 360 caravanserais, and 12,000 mosques.

Chandernagore (properly Chandan-nagar, city of sandalwood '), a French city, with a scanty territory of about 3 sq. m., on the right bank of the Hugli, 22 miles above Calcutta by rail. Established in 1673, the place for a while rivalled Calcutta; now, through the gradual silting up of the river, it has lost most of its commercial advantages, and has little external trade. It is the seat of a French sub-governor, with a few soldiers, and has a population of about 23,000, including some 300 Europeans and Eurasians. The town was bombarded and captured by the English in 1757, restored in 1763, twice retaken, and finally restored to the French in 1816.

Chandler, RICHARD, a learned classical archæologist, was born at Elson, Hants, in 1738, and educated at Winchester and at Queen's and Magdalen colleges, Oxford. His first important work was Marmora Oxoniensia (1763), an elaborate description of the Oxford marbles. He afterwards travelled through Greece and Asia Minor, with Revett, architect, and Pars, a painter, at the expense of the Dilettanti Society, to examine and describe the antiquities. The materials collected were given to the world in the following publications: Ionian Antiquities (1769), Inscriptiones Antiquæ (1774), Travels in Asia Minor (1775), and Travels in Greece

CHANDLER

(1776). Chandler was made D.D. in 1773, and afterwards held preferments in Hants and at Tilehurst, near Reading, in Berks, where he died 9th February 1810.

Chandler, SAMUEL, an English Nonconformist divine, born at Hungerford in 1693, became minister of a Presbyterian church at Peckham, and preached at the Old Jewry from 1726 until his death in 1766. He was an industrious writer, and published especially a large number of works relating to the deist controversy and to catholicism.

Chandor, a town in the province of Bombay, 40 miles NE. of Nasik. Its fort, commanding an important pass on the route between Khandesh and Bombay, crowns a hill 3994 feet high. It surrendered to the British in 1804, and was finally ceded by Holkar in 1818. Pop. 4892.

Chandos, a great English family, descended from a follower of William the Conqueror, the last representative in the direct male line being Sir John Chandos (died 1428), whose sister married one Giles Brydges. Their descendant, Sir John Brydges, was lieutenant of the Tower under Queen Mary, and was created Baron Chandos in 1554. James Brydges (1673-1744), eighth Lord Chandos, sat in parliament for Hereford from 1698 to 1714, and was created Duke of Chandos in 1719. The lucrative post of paymaster of the forces abroad (170712) supplied means for building a palace at Canons, near Edgware, which cost £200,000, but was torn

down at the duke's death. Here Handel lived two years, wrote anthems for the chapel service, and produced Esther.' In 1796 the title passed by marriage to the family of Grenville, the present dukes of Buckingham and Chandos.

Chandpur, a town of British India, in the North-west Provinces, 19 miles S. of Bijnaur. Pop. 11,182.

Chandragupta. See SANDROCOTTUS. Changarnier, NICOLAS ANNE THÉODULE, a French general, born at Autun in 1793, was educated at Saint-Cyr, and went in 1830 to Algeria, where for eighteen years he saw all the active service there was to be seen. On the proclamation of the Republic in 1848 he acted as provisional governor-general of Algeria, but returned to Paris to take command of the garrisons of Paris and of the National Guard. He did much to check the outbreaks of the anarchist party during 1849. In the Legislative Assembly he held a sort of neutral position between the Orleanists and the Legitimists, whilst opposing the Bonapartist party. At the coup d'état in December 1851, after being imprisoned in Ham, he went into exile till the FrancoPrussian war, when he offered his services to Napoleon III. He was in Metz with Bazaine, and, on its capitulation, retired to Brussels. He returned to France in 1871, entered the Assembly, and assisted M. Thiers in reorganising the army. He died at Versailles, February 14, 1877.

Chang-Chow, a city of China, in the province of Fo-kien, 28 miles W. by S. of Amoy. Pop. estimated at 1,000,000.

Chang-Chow, a city of China, in the province of Kiang-su, about 50 miles E. by S. of Nanking. Pop. 360,000.

This superstition is alluded to by Shakespeare, Spenser, and other poets, and is an essential part of the doctrine of fairy-lore almost everywhere. See Sikes's British Goblins (1879).

Chang-Sha, a city of China, capital of the province of Hu-nan, on the Heng-kiang, a tributary of the Yang-tse. Pop. 300,000.

Chank-shell (Tsjanka), the popular. name of the shell of several species of Turbinella, a genus of (Prosobranchiate) Gasteropod molluscs, natives

of the East Indian seas. These shells ( (especially T. rapa and T. pyrum) are obtained chiefly on the coasts of the south of India and Ceylon, and form a considerable article of trade to Calcutta. They are much used as ornaments by Hindu women. A chank-shell opening to the right is rare, and is highly prized in Calcutta, so that a price of £50, or even £100, is sometimes paid for one.

Channel, THE ENGLISH (La Manche, 'Sleeve,' of the French, and the Mare Britannicum of the Romans), is the narrow sea which, since the glacial period, separates England and France. On the east, it joins the North Sea at the Strait of Dover, where it is narrowest, being only 21 miles wide from Dover to Cape Gris-Nez. From this strait it runs west-south-west for 280 miles, and joins the Atlantic Ocean at the Chops, with a breadth of 100 miles between the Scilly Isles and Ushant Isle. With an average breadth of 70 miles, it is 90 miles wide from Brighton to Havre; 60 miles from Portland Bill to Cape La Hague; 140 miles-its greatest breadth-from Sidmouth to St Malo; and 100 to 110 miles west of the latter line. It occupies 23,900 square geographical miles, and contains the Channel Isles, Ushant Isle, Isle of Wight, and many islets and rocks, especially off the coast of Brittany. It is shallowest at the Strait of Dover, where a chalk ridge at the depth of twelve to thirty fathoms joins England and France. West of this, the average depth of the central portion is thirty fathoms, with hollows from forty to sixty-two fathoms deep. The English coast-line of the Channel is 390 miles long, and the French coast-line is 570 miles long. Westerly winds prevail, and the current, though imperceptible, is always from west to east. English Channel abounds in fish, of which the chief are pilchard, mackerel, and oysters. See CHANNEL TUNNEL.

The

Channel Islands, THE, a group of small islands off the NW. coast of France, which formed part of the old duchy of Normandy, and has remained subject to the British crown. est points are about twelve miles from the French coast. The principal islands are four in number

The near