An English grammar

PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE.

The meaning of opposition or contest comes readily from the main root, seeing that combatants, as well as friends, must come into close contact. With' in compounds has always this meaning: withstand. The meaning of 'in spite of' may be explained in the same way as the adversative use of for.' 'With all his learning, he had but little prudence.'

From union or companionship comes instrumentality, or means: fed with the same food, hurt with the same weapons;' paved with gold,' 'enriched with knowledge,' elated with joy, filled with wine,' planted with firs,' 'wearied with much study, with meditating that he must die once '-Shakspeare.

It has been seen that the agent, or prime mover, in an effect, more usually takes by' after it; but the instrument that the agent employs is expressed by with the field was dug by the labourer with his spade.' 'By' is the preposition that follows the passive voice tried by his peers.'

With' is also used for immediately after, the connection of ideas being apparent: with this, he pointed to his face.'

Errors. They quarrelled among each other,' should be with each other;' agreeable with (to) their instructions; he is not yet reconciled with (to) me;' prevailed with (upon);' 'good-bye with (to) you,' or 'good-bye.'

'From,' by,' and 'with,' are prepositions corresponding to the ablative case in Latin. In Greek, which has no ablative, the genitive and dative are taken instead, or the corresponding prepositions are used.

The employing of these detached words is more conducive to facility and precision than the case inflections. Nevertheless it is proper to signalize the relations that the old languages have thought fit to express by cases, as being in all probability those of most frequent, occurrence and of greatest importance. We shall now enumerate the entire body of prepositions under different heads, according to their meanings.

The classification is as follows:-
:-

9. I. PLACE. Under place, we have (1.) Rest in (the where), as 'in,' 'on,' 'at,' ' near,'' by.' (2.) Motion with direction (the whence and the whither), to,' into,' 'unto,' towards' (up, down), 'from.' (3.) Place and direction, on,'' over,' 'under,' through,' 'behind,' between,'' among,' 'upon,' near,' 'off,' 'across,' 'beyond,' abaft,' above.'

10. In.' The chief preposition of rest in, or the where. The primary force of the word is maintained throughout the many applications of it. The idea of being contained' is seen even when place is not the subject under consideration. In summer,' in a deep slumber,' immersed in worldly affairs,' employed in carrying,' in the power of the enemy,' in joy and in sorrow,' versed in languages,' 'persevere in his design,' involved in ruin.'

The phrases in fact,' 'in truth,' in that,' inasmuch as,'' in the event of,' in vain,' 'in all,' indicate no essential departure from the primary import. In the name of,' used in invocation or adjuration, may be supposed to mean 'clothed with the name or authority of.'

The old writers often used 'in' for 'into:' cast yourself in wonder.' The familiar phrase 'fall in love' remains as an example of the usage.

Scot. He gave me a book in (as) a present.'

'On.' Properly this falls under the third class (place and direction); but it may often be an equivalent of 'in,' as signifying merely rest. 'On a rock, whose haughty brow.'

'At.' The same as near or close by: At the house' may mean simply near or by the house. Although thus coinciding in its primary meaning with 'by,' it differs from by' in not being extended to signify causation or agency. Besides closeness, 'at' may imply in the direction of; as to fire at a mark;' 'to glance at a question;' 'to laugh at, wonder at,' bark at, 'work at,' 'get at,' come at.'

There is a distinction between 'at' and 'in,' as signifying place; we say at the market cross,' at the fountain,' but in the town,' ‘in France,' in America;' the one being a limited object, which we may stand close by, the other a more extended surface, which we are contained in. The distinction exactly illustrates the difference in the primary meanings of the words. In some cases both are applicable: at, or in school or church;' but we must say 'at home.' Applied to time, it signifies a point or moment of time, at present,' at the stroke of nine,' 'at noon,'' at midnight.'

The phrases involving ‘at' are in keeping with the general signification, although some of them constitute peculiar idioms: at peace,' at war,'' at play,' at the price of,' at a loss,' ' at fault,'' at hand,' at issue,' at variance,' at liberty,' 'at an end,' 'at best,' at all,' 'at large,' at this,' 'at full speed.'

Scot. Angry at (with) him;''hatred at (to or against);'‘ask, inquire at (of).'

Near' (nigh). This preposition also means proximity, which idea it abides by very closely in its metaphorical applications; thus we have near the heart,' a translation near the original,' 'near the time,' It contrasts with 'at' in not signifying direction at a distance, and within' in not expressing the fact of being contained in. The adjective near' signifying narrow, parsimonious, is doubtless the same word.

11. (2.) Motion with direction. this meaning.

'To' is the chief preposition for

Next we have the important compound 'into,' which is very uniform and explicit in its application. Go into the house,' 'look into a book,' 'led into error, instilled into his mind,' 'forced into compliance,' 'ages crowded into years,' 'broken up into companies,' 'burst into fragments,' into difficulties,' infuse more spirit into the composition,' let into the secret,' 'spring into blossom.'

Scot. He is soon put into (in) a passion;' sit into (near) the fire.' 'Unto.' Compounded of 'on' and to,' and now seldom used, as it

PLACE AND DIRECTION.

signifies almost the same as either 'to' or 'into.'

Towards' needs

no special remark. From' has been already explained.

12. (3.) Place and direction. 'On.' The simple preposition of rest, repose, or support, the foundation or prop being indicated by the noun following: on the ground,'' on the table,' on the sea,'

· on

the coast,' 'leaning on his staff.' When we say 'London is situated on the Thames,' there is a slight departure from the strict meaning, as if by a figure of speech.

Sometimes a falling or other motion is implied: "The rain falls on the earth;' 'I sift the snow on the mountains below.'

The other uses consist more or less in following out these primary significations. Depend on me' is metaphorical rest or support. Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight,' is highly figurative, but still in keeping. He plays on the violin,' 'he dined on fish,' are farther extensions of signification. The phrases 'to gaze on,''to dote on,' 'comment on,' prevail on,' 'insist on,' 'resolve on,' 'reflect on,' trespass on,' are well-recognized idioms, which seem remote from the primary sense, although the connection of ideas is still traceable.

In signifying time, we have such forms as on Monday,' 'on that night, on the occasion;' these explain themselves. A somewhat different sense is observable when we say 'on the melting of the ice the ships depart.'

Many phrases involve this preposition: 'on fire,' 'on the wing,' 'on the alert, on a sudden,' 'on view,' 'on a great scale,' on the part of,' 'on my honour,' 'his blood be on us.'

Rely in is an error for rely on;' founded in truth,' for on truth.' Scot. He was married on (to) such a person;' 'I have waited long on (for) an answer;' 'I saw him on or upon (in) the street.'

'On' is opposed by off,' which, however, is more in use as an adverb than as a preposition: off the ground,' 'off my shoulders.' The adverbial meaning is the same, and is seen in composition with verbs, as get off,' break off,' be off,' 'draw off,' drive off,'' keep off,' 'pay off,'' drink off' (set off, on a journey, should be set out). The phrases well off,'' badly off,' are somewhat peculiar; there is probably an ellipsis of some subject, as if we were to say he is well off that business.'

'Up,' 'down.' The various meanings of these words accord with the primary significations. The price of stock is up;' 'his spirits were up; the county is up (in arms).' In compound words we have the adverbial form with a like signification: 'look up,' 'fill up,' 'lead up,' 'hush up.'

Down stairs,'' down hill,'' down the stream,' 'down the vale of years.' In the adverbial form, 'come down,'' sit down,' 'bring down,' 'pull down,' 'take down,' 'run down,' 'write down,' 'put down.'

Upon' is a modification or variety of the simple preposition 'on,' which can be used for it in nearly every case. Upon a hill,' upon the right,' 'upon condition,' 'upon security,' 'upon a footing,' upon the parish (for subsistence or support),'' upon principle,' upon record,' upon trial,' upon a time,' upon occasion,' upon this.'

In adverbial combinations: dwell upon,' descant upon,' 'gaze upon,' 'prey upon,' 'resolve upon.'

Scot. There is a meeting upon (on) Thursday;' 'he plays upon (on) the flute.'

Above,' below,' beneath.' These words likewise adhere with considerable regularity to their well-known sense-higher or lower in place. The metaphorical applications of 'above' are seen in such examples as above his rank,' 'above his means,' above comprehension,' above board,' 'above mean actions,' 'above the brightness of the sun.' The transition is easy to the meaning, more than, in excess; as above all,' 'above the price of rubies,'' the serpent is cursed above all cattle.'

Adverbially the sense is adhered to. In referring back to a former place in a book, the phrase is 'above.'

As above' is extended metaphorically to signify superiority, dignity, elevation, 'below,' and 'beneath,' are applied to the opposite states of inferiority and degradation: below the mark,' beneath the yoke,' 'beneath contempt.' Adv. He shrunk beneath.' Scot. 'Who lives above (over) you?' Below (under) water, ground, his clothes.'

'Over,' above in position. Extended from place to many other applications, preserving the main idea: 'power over,' 'to watch over,' predominate over, muse over,' 'fear came over me.' 'Over the season,' is through the season: 'over-night,' would be literally through the night, but means also after the commencement of the night.

In composition the meaning is still preserved: 'overshoot,' 'overhang,' 'overcome.' In some compounds the idea implied is excess, 'overdo,' 'overcharge,' overestimate.' The transition is an obvious one. The idea of covering' distinguishes this preposition from the allied word above,' and has given to it a far greater stretch of applications. The number of derivatives obtained from it is very great. Scot. They looked over (out at) the window.'

Under,' the opposite of over: 'under the tree,' 'under hatches,' 'under water,'' under heaven.' The word is extended to subjection, dependence, and protection; as 'under the sovereign,' 'under God;' to the sustaining of anything as a burden, covering, or envelope: 'under obligation,' 'under orders,'' under trial,'' under apprehension,' under reproaches,' 'under necessity,' 'under consideration,'' under the guise or pretence, or character, or name of,' 'under sail,' 'under arms to less in quantity; as under age,' under the mark.' Under the seal of,' is a more remote extension, and may be interpreted as under the authority, or guarantee signified by the putting of a seal. The adverbial sense is in harmony with the other: 'bring under,' 'put under,' 'come under,' 'go under,' 'bend under.'

Through.' The simple preposition for the idea of passage: through the gate,' through the wood,' through many hands,' through the ranks,' through the clouds,' through the ages,' through the valley and shadow of death.' The first step in advance of the primitive sense is to signify, over the whole extent of a thing, from end to end, or from one side to another; as 'through all ranks,' through all nations;' the application depending on the fact that passage implies successive conact, and a survey of what is gone over. Owing to the facility for

'BEFORE.' AFTER.'

'BETWEEN.'

gaining our wishes implied in a free passage, an open door, or a medium of conveyance, the word farther takes on the meaning of instrumentality: through industry,' through influence,' through the minister,' 'through the swiftness of his horse.' A difference may be noted between this kind of instrumentality and that expressed by 'with;' a difference arising out of the primitive sense of the words. Scot. He walked through (across) the room;' he will learn through (in) time; he walks through (in) his sleep.'

Along,' across.' Along, is by the 'long' or length of: along the shore,' along the road,' alongside.' Adv. 'Come along,' wander along,'' drive along,' glide along. No metaphorical extensions of any importance are to be noted.

Across.' On the cross:'' across the river,'' across the street,'' across the Atlantic,'' across his shoulders.' Adv. 'Lay across,' swim across.' 'Before,' 'after,' 'behind.' 'Before,' in the front of, with or without proximity before the door,'' before Sebastopol,' 'before the face of,' 'before the magistrate,' 'before the wind.' By a natural transition it applies to precedence, preference, or superiority: before his betters,' 'before his regiment,' he was placed before the knights.' The application to priority of time is one of the chief uses of the word: before day,' before long,' before the age.'. In the adverbial applications both place and time are denoted, more especially time: 'looking before and after.'

'After,' opposed to 'before' in the signification of precedence in rank, and in expressing time. The full application to place is seen in the adverbial and adjective uses of the word: lagging after,' 'the after-part of the building." By an obvious figure it is used with words signifying pursuit and inquiry, and also desire: follow after,' search after,' 'hunger and thirst after,' 'longing after immortality.' By a farther extension, also quite accountable, we find it signifying imitation or following a lead: ‘after Titiens,' ' after the original, the model,' 'to name after.'

'Behind.' As opposed to 'before' we may define it, in the rear of, or at the back of: 'behind the scenes,' behind a cloud,'' behind the back.' Hence such applications as inferiority, being left out, a remainder in arrear, at a distance, out of sight, disregarded. The adverbial compounds with verbs are of a like tenor: stay behind,' 'fall behind,' 'walk behind,' 'look behind.'

'Between.' When two objects are separated, the intervening space, or anything in a middle position, is expressed by this word in its primary sense: ‘between decks,' 'between times.' Hence it is applied to express all that goes on in such a situation: passing between ;' 'intercourse or communication between;' coincidence, similarity, contrast, or difference between' (the result of the comparison that may take place when two things are near each other); so 'friendship, relationship, understanding between,'' contest and rivalry between,' to adjudicate between; also community or partnership; as 'possessing property between them.'

Among,' and 'amidst.' Between' expresses in the midst of two; among' and' amidst ' imply a greater number of things surrounding :

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