really to love and pray for the good of our enemies. This, however, is Christian duty, such is the spirit of the gospel. Just so far, therefore, as we find our hearts indisposed to bless those who curse us, or inclined to indulge even a secret satisfaction when evil comes upon them, are we unchristian in our temper, vs. 19—21.

7. Nothing is so powerful as goodness; it is the most efficacious means to subdue enemies and put down opposition. Men, whose minds can withstand argument, and whose hearts rebel against threats, are not proof against the persuasive influence of unfeigned love; there is, therefore, no more important collateral reason for being good, than that it increases our power to do good, vs. 20-21.

CHAPTER XIII.

Contents.

THE chapter treats mainly of our political duties. From v. 1 to v. 7 inclusive, the apostle enforces the duties which we owe to civil magistrates. From v. 8 to v. 13, he refers to the more general obligations under which Christians are placed, but still with special reference to their civil and social relations, From v. 11 to the end of the chapter, he enjoins an exemplary and holy deportment.

CHAP. 13: 1-14.

Analysis.

THE duty of obedience to those in authority is enforced, 1. By the consideration that civil government is a divine institution, and, therefore, resistance to magistrates in the exercise of their lawful authority is disobedience to God, vs. 1, 2. 2. From the end or design of their appointment, which is to promote the good of society, to be a terror to evil doers, and a praise to them that do well, vs. 3, 4. 3. Because such subjection is a moral, as well as civil duty, v. 5. On these grounds the pay

ment of tribute or taxes, and general deference, are to be cheerfully rendered, vs. 6, 7.

Christians are bound not only to be obedient to those in authority, but also to perform all social and relative duties, especially that of love, which includes and secures the observance of all others, vs. 8-10. A pure and exemplary life as members of society is enforced by the consideration that the night is far spent and that the day is at hand, that the time of suffering and trial is nearly over, and that of deliverance approaching, vs. 11—14.

Commentary.

(1) Let every soul be subject to the higher powers. The expression every soul is often used as equivalent to every one; it is at times, however, emphatic, and such is probably the case in this passage. By higher powers is most commonly and naturally understood those in authority, without reference to their grade of office, or their character. We are to be subject not only to the supreme magistrates, but to all who have authority over us. The abstract word powers or authorities (govcía) is used, as the corresponding terms in most languages, for those who are invested with power, Luke 12: 11. Eph. 1: 21. 3: 10, &c. &c. The word (inɛgéxwv) rendered higher is applied to any one who, in dignity and authority, excels others. In 1 Peter 2: 13, it is applied to the king as supreme, i. e. superior to all other magistrates. But here one class of magistrates is not brought into comparison with another, but they are spoken of as being over other men who are not in office. It is a very unnatural interpretation which makes this word refer to the character of the magistrates, as though the sense were, 'Be subject to good magistrates.' This is contrary to the usage of the term and inconsistent with the context. Obedience is not enjoined on the ground of the personal merit of those in authority, but on the ground of their official station.

There was peculiar necessity, during the apostolic age, for inculcating the duty of obedience to civil magistrates. This necessity arose in part from the fact that a large portion of the converts to Christianity had been Jews, and were peculiarly indisposed to submit to the heathen authorities. This indispo

sition (as far as it was peculiar) arose from the prevailing impression among them that this subjection was unlawful, or at least highly derogatory to their character as the people of God, who had so long lived under a theocracy. In Deut. 17: 15, it is said, "Thou shalt in any wise set him king over thee, whom the Lord thy God shall choose; one from among thy brethren shalt thou set king over thee; thou shalt not set a stranger over thee, which is not thy brother." It was a question, therefore, constantly agitated among them, "Is it lawful to pay tribute unto Caesar, or not?" A question which the great majority were at least secretly inclined to answer in the negative. Another source of the restlessness of the Jews under a foreign yoke, was the idea which they entertained of the nature of the Messiah's kingdom. As they expected a temporal Prince, whose kingdom should be of this world, they were ready to rise in rebellion at the call of every one who cried, "I am Christ." The history of the Jews at this period shows how great was the effect produced by these and similar causes on their feelings towards the Roman government. They were continually breaking out into tumults, which led to their expulsion from Rome,* and, finally, to the utter destruction of Jerusalem. It is, therefore, not a matter of surprise that converts from among such a people should need the injunction, "Be subject to the higher powers." Besides the effect of their previous opinions and feelings, there is something in the character of Christianity itself, and in the incidental results of the excitement which it occasions, to account for the repugnance of many of the early Christians to submit to their civil rulers. They wrested no doubt the doctrine of Christian liberty, as they did other doctrines, to suit their own inclinations. This result, however, is to be attributed not to religion, but to the improper feelings of those into whose minds the form of truth without its full power had been received.

For there is no power but of God; and the powers that be are ordained of God. This is the ground of the command in the first clause. We must obey our rulers, because government is of divine appointment. It is not a matter which men

SUETONIUS, Claud. 25, says, Judaeos impulsore Chresto assidue tumultuantes (Claudius) Roma expulit; see Acts 18: 2.

may or may not have at pleasure; it is the will of God that it should exist, and that those who exercise it should be obeyed within the sphere of their legitimate authority. It is doubtful whether the word power, in the first clause of this sentence, is to be taken as abstract or concrete, i. e. whether the meaning is, "There is no government or authority but of God,' or 'There is no magistrate who is not of God;' every civil magistrate is to be considered as clothed with divine authority. There seems to be little difference, as to the real sense of the passage, between these two modes of interpretation. The main idea obviously is, that government is of divine appointment, and consequently those who resist it disobey God. In the second clause, the powers that be are ordained of God, the sense may be either, all governments are ordained of God, or, all magistrates are thus ordained. Some commentators insist strenuously on the one mode, and some on the other. But as just remarked, the sentiment is in either case the same. As the expression higher powers, at the beginning of the verse, is almost universally understood of the persons who exercise authority, it would seem most natural to understand the same word in the same manner through the remainder of the verse. All magistrates of whatever grade are to be regarded as acting by divine appointment; not that God designates the individuals, but that it being his will that there should be magistrates, every person, who is in point of fact clothed with authority, is to be regarded as having a claim to obedience, founded on the will of God. In like manner the authority of parents over their children, of husbands over their wives, of masters over their servants, is of God's ordination.

(2) Whoso, therefore, resisteth the power resisteth the ordinance of God. This is an obvious inference from the doctrine of the preceding verse. If it is the will of God that there should be civil government, and persons appointed to exercise authority over others, it is plain that to resist such persons in the exercise of their lawful authority is an act of disobedience to God.

And they that resist shall receive to themselves damnation. This also is an obvious conclusion from the preceding. If disobedience is a sin, it will be punished. The word (xgina) rendered damnation, means here simply punishment, which is

also the old meaning of the word damnation. As this word, however, has become restricted to the final and eternal condemnation of the wicked, it is now unsuited to this passage and some others in which it occurs in our version; see 1 Cor. 11: 29. Paul does not refer to the punishment which the civil magistrate may inflict; for he is speaking of disobedience to those in authority as a sin against God, which he will punish.

It is clear that this passage (vs. 1, 2) is applicable to men living under every form of government, monarchial, aristocratical, or democratical, in all their various modifications. Those who are in authority are to be obeyed within their sphere, no matter how or by whom appointed. It was to Paul a matter of little importance whether the Roman emperor was appointed by the senate, the army, or the people; whether the assumption of the imperial authority by Caesar was just or unjust, or whether his successors had a legitimate claim to the throne or not. It was his object to lay down the simple principle, that magistrates are to be obeyed. The extent of this obedience is to be determined from the nature of the case. They are to be obeyed as magistrates, in the exercise of their lawful authority. When Paul commands wives to obey their husbands, they are required to obey them as husbands, not as masters nor as kings; children are to obey their parents as parents, not as sovereigns; and so in every other case. This passage, therefore, affords a very slight foundation for the doctrine of passive obedience.

(3) For rulers are not a terror to good works, but to evil. This verse is not to be connected with the second, but with the first, as it assigns an additional reason for the duty there enjoined. Magistrates are to be obeyed, for such is the will of God, and because they are appointed to repress evil and to promote good. There is a ground, therefore, in the very nature of their office, why they should not be resisted.

Wilt thou then not be afraid of the power? do that which is good, and thou shalt have praise of the same. That is, government is not an evil to be feared, except by evil doers. As the magistrates are appointed for the punishment of evil, the way to avoid their authority is not to resist it, but to do that which is good. Paul is speaking of the legitimate design of government, not of the abuse of power by wicked men.