noble youth. His efforts were grandly successful; and in less than a generation England was again blessed with intelligence and prosperity. Among the books he translated into AngloSaxon were Bede's "Ecclesiastical History"; Orosius's "Universal History," the leading textbook on that subject in the monastic schools for several centuries; and Boethius's “Consolations of Philosophy," a popular book among thoughtful people during the Middle Ages. These translations were not always literal. Alfred rather performed the work of editor, paraphrasing, omitting, adding, as best served his purpose. In the work of Boethius he frequently departed from the text to introduce reflections of his own. To him belongs the honor of having furnished England with its first body of literature in the native tongue.

FOR FURTHER READING AND STUDY.

The following subjects may be assigned students for parallel study, essays, or reading in class. Other subjects and sources may be indicated according to the judgment of the teacher and the library facilities at his command. A select bibliography will be found in the appendix.

66

The Roman conquest of Britain, Tacitus, Agricola ('Bohn), Macaulay, "History of England," ch. 1, and Green, "History of the English People," ch. 1; The introduction of Christianity under Augustine, Bede, "Ecclesiastical History," chaps. 25, 26 (Bohn), and Macaulay and Green; The death of Cadmon, Bede, "Ecclesiastical History," ch. 24; Celtic literature, Morley, “English Writers," vol. 1, ch. 3, and Matthew Arnold, Celtic Literature"; "The Voyage of Maeldune," based on an Irish legend about 700 A.D., Tennyson, "Poems"; The circumstances of Bede's death, Cuthbert's Letter in the preface of Bede's 'Ecclesiastical History" (Bohn); Teutonic character and customs as illustrated in wulf," Earle, "The Deeds of Beowulf," a prose translation, and Hall, "Beowulf," a metrical, alliterative version; The qualities of Anglo-Saxon poetry as exemplified in "The Seafarer," "The

"Beo

Wanderer," and "The Battle of Maldon," Cook and Tinker, "Select Translations from Old English Poetry," and Brooke, "Early English Literature."

"The Battle of Brunanburgh" is given in the selections of Part II.

MIDDLE ENGLISH OR FORMATIVE PERIOD.

PRINCIPAL WRITERS.

HISTORY." Anglo Saxon Chronicle" (concluded 1154). (See Text.)

METRICAL CHRONICLES.- Layamon (twelfth century), "Brut," or Chronicles of Britain.

Robert of Gloucester († 1300), "Rhyming Chronicles of Britain.” Robert Manning († 1270), "Chronicles of England."

RELIGION.- John Wycliffe (1324-1384). Tracts, Sermons, Translation of the Bible. (See Text.)

Ormin (thirteenth century), “Ormulum.” (See Text.)

Langland (fourteenth century), "Vision of Piers the Plowman." (See Text.)

66

MISCELLANEOUS POETRY.- John Gower (1327-1408, "Speculum Meditantis " (French), "Vox Clamantis" (Latin), Confessio (English), etc. (See Text.)

Amantis "

GREAT REPRESENTATIVE WRITER.

GEOFFREY CHAUCER.

11.

MIDDLE ENGLISH OR FORMATIVE PERIOD.

(1066 — 1400.)

The designation Middle English or Formative Period is applied to the centuries lying between the Norman Conquest and the death of Chaucer. It is a period of great importance for English history and English literature. England passed under a succession of alien rulers, the state of society underwent a great change, and our language approached its modern form.

24. The Normans.— The name of Normans is given to the Scandinavians who, at the beginning of the tenth century, conquered a home in the northern part of France. They speedily adopted the language and customs of the subjugated country, and rapidly advanced in refinement and culture. By intermarriage with the native population, a vivacious Celtic element was introduced into the grave Teutonic disposition. Though of kindred blood with the Anglo-Saxons, the Normans, by their stay in France, developed a new, and in many respects admirable, type of character.

Along with their native Teutonic strength they acquired a versatile and imitative temper, which made them accessible to new ideas, and prepared them to be leaders in general progress. Losing their slow, phlegmatic temperament, they became impulsive and impatient of restraint. Their intellects acquired a nimble quality, quick in discernment and instantaneous in decision. Delicacy of feeling produced aversion to coarse pleasures. They delighted in a gay social life, with hunting, hawking, showy equipage, and brilliant festivities. Diplomacy in a measure supplanted daring frankness. Brilliant superficiality took the place of grave thoughtfulness. Such were the

people that were to rule in England, to introduce their language and customs, and, amalgamated at last, to impart a needed element to the English character.

25. The Norman Conquest.-In 1066 William, Duke of Normandy, landed on the English coast to enforce his claim to the English throne. In the battle of Hastings he gained a complete victory over the force under Harold, and won the title of Conqueror. He distributed England in the form of fiefs among his followers, and reduced the Anglo-Saxon population to a condition of serfdom. Feudal castles were erected in every part of England; and the barons or lords, upported by the labors of a great body of dependants, lived in idleness and luxury. These baronial residences became centres of knightly culture. Here noble youths acquired courtly graces, and wandering minstrels entertained the assembled household with their songs. Brilliant tournaments from time to time brought together the beauty and chivalry of the whole realm. French became the social language of the ruling classes; and the Anglo-Saxons, reduced to servitude, were despised. It required many generations to break down this harsh antagonism.

26. Linguistic Changes. But toward the close of the period, especially in the fourteenth century, the people of England became more homogeneous. The Normans coalesced with the Anglo-Saxons, and added new elements to the English character. At the same time the Anglo-Saxon language, which ·had hitherto maintained its highly inflected character, made a gradual transition into modern English. It gave up its complicated inflections, and received int its vocabulary a host of foreign elements, chiefly from the French. The new tongue, which gradually supplanted French and Latin, gained official recognition in 1362, when it became the language of the courts of law; and the following year it was employed in the speech made at the opening of Parliament.

27. Social Conditions. The social condition of England in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries was intimately related to the first great outbreak of English literature. A restraint was set upon absolutism by the provisions of the Great Charter. The growth of cities and towns had been rapid, and