CHAPTER II.

ON THE CONSTITUTION OF MAN, AND ITS RELATIONS TO EXTERNAL OBJECTS.

LET us next consider the Constitution of Man, and the natural laws to which he is subjected, and endeavor to discover how far the external world is arranged with wisdom and benevolence, in regard to him. Bishop Butler, in the Preface to his Sermons, says, 'It is from considering the relations which the several appetites and passions in the inward frame have to each other, and, above all, the SUPREMACY of reflection or conscience, that we get the idea of the system or constitution of human nature. And from the idea itself, it will as fully appear, that this our nature, i. e. constitution, is, adapted to virtue, as from the idea of a watch it appears that its nature, i. e. constitution or system, is adapted to measure time.'

'Mankind has various instincts and principles of action, as brute creatures have; some leading most directly and immediately to the good of the community, and some most directly to private good.'

'Man has several, which brutes have not; particularly reflection or conscience, an approbation of some principles or actions, and disapprobation of others.'

'Brutes obey their instincts or principles of action, according to certain rules; suppose, the constitution of their body, and the objects around them.'

'The generality of mankind also obey their instincts and principles, all of them, those propensities we call good, as well as the bad, according to the same rules, namely, the constitution of their body, and the external circumstances which they are in.'

Brutes, in acting according to the rules before mentioned, their bodily constitution and circumstances, act suitably to their whole nature.

'Mankind also, in acting thus, would act suitably to their whole nature, if no more were to be said of man's nature than what has been now said; if that, as it is a true, were also a complete, adequate account of our nature.

"But that is not a complete account of man's nature. Somewhat further must be brought in to give us an adequate notion of it; namely, that one of those principles of action, conscience, or reflection, compared with the rest, as they all stand together in the nature of man, plainly bears upon it marks of authority over all the rest, and claims the absolute direction of them all, to allow or forbid their gratification;— a disapprobation on reflection being in itself a principle manifestly superior to a mere propension. And the conclusion is, that to allow no more to this superior principle or part of our nature, than to other parts; to let it govern and guide only occasionally, in common with the rest, as its turn happens to come, from the temper and circumstances one happens to be in; this is not to act conformably to the constitution of man: neither can any human creature be said to act conformably to his constitution of nature, unless he allows to that superior principle the absolute authority which is due to it.'-Butler's Works, vol. ii. Preface. The following Essay is founded on the principles here suggested.

SECTION I.

MAN CONSIDERED AS A PHYSICAL BEING.

THE human body consists of bones, muscles, nerves, blood-vessels, besides organs of nutrition, of respiration, and of thought. These parts are all composed of physical elements, and, to a certain extent, are subjected to the physical laws of creation. By the law of gravitation, the body falls to the ground when unsupported, and is liable to be injured, like any frangible substance; by a chemical law,

excessive cold freezes, and excessive heat dissipates, its fluids; and life, in either case, is extinguished.

To discover the real effect of the physical laws of nature on human happiness, we would require to understand, 1st, The physical laws themselves, as revealed by mathematics, natural philosophy, natural history, chemistry, and their subordinate branches; 2dly, The anatomical and physiological constitution of the human body; 3dly, The adaptation of the former to the latter. These expositions are necessary to ascertain the extent to which it is possible for man to place himself in accordance with the physical laws, so as to reap advantage from them, and also to determine how far the sufferings which he endures fall to be ascribed to the inevitable operation of these laws, or how far to his ignorance and infringement of them. To treat of these views in detail, would require separate volumes, and I therefore confine myself to a single instance as an illustration of the mode in which the investigation might be conducted.*

By the law of gravitation, heavy bodies always tend towards the centre of the earth. Some of the advantages of this law are, that objects, when properly supported, remain at rest; that walls, when built sufficiently thick and perpendicular, stand firm and erect; that water descends from high places, and precipitates itself down the channels of rivers, turns mill-wheels in its course, and sets in motion the most stupendous and useful machinery; and that ships move steadily through the water with part of their hulls immersed, and part rising moderately above it, their masts and sails towering in the air to catch the inconstant breeze.

To place man in harmony with this law, the Creator has bestowed on him bones, muscles, and nerves, constructed on the most perfect principles, which enable him to pre

*The reader will find many valuable illustrations of these laws in "The principles of Physiology applied to the Preservation of Health, and to the Improvement of Physical and mental Education," by Andrew Combe, M. D. third edition. Black, Edinburgh; and Longman & Co., London.

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serve his equilibrium, and to adapt his movements to its influence; also intellectual faculties, calculated to perceive the existence of the law, its modes of operation, the relation between it and himself, the beneficial consequences of observing this relation, and the painful results of infringing it.

When a person falls over a precipice, and is maimed or killed; when a ship springs a leak and sinks; or when a reservoir of water breaks down its banks and ravages a valley, the evils, no doubt, proceed from the operation of this law; but we ought to inquire whether they could or could not have been prevented, by a due exercise of the physical and mental powers bestowed by the Creator on man, to enable him to avoid the injurious effects of gravitation?

By pursuing this course, we shall arrive at sound conclusions concerning the adaptation of the human mind and body to the physical laws of creation. The subject, as I have said, is too extensive to be here prosecuted in detail, and I am incompetent, besides, to do it justice; but enough has been said to elucidate the principle contended for. And the more minutely any one inquires, the more firm will be his conviction, that, in these relations, admirable provision has been made by the Creator for human happiness, and that the evils which arise from neglect of them, are attributable, to a great extent, to man's not adequately applying his powers to the promotion of his own enjoyment.

SECTION II.

MAN CONSIDERED AS AN ORGANIZED BEING.

MAN is an organized being, and subject to the organic laws. An organized being is one which derives its existence from a previously existing organized being, which subsists on food, which grows, attains maturity, decays, and dies. The first law, then, that must be obeyed, to render an organized being perfect in its kind, is, that the germ, from which it

springs, shall be complete in all its parts, and sound in its whole constitution. If we sow an acorn, in which some vital part has been destroyed altogether, the seedling plant and the full grown oak, if it ever attain to maturity, will be deficient in the lineaments which were wanting in the embryo root; if we sow an acorn entire in its parts, but only half ripened, or damaged by damp or other causes in its whole texture, the seedling oak will be feeble, and will probably die early. A similar law holds in regard to man. A second organic law is, that the organized being, the moment it is ushered into life, and so long as it continues to live, must be supplied with food, light, air, and every other physical aliment requisite for its support, in due quantity, and of the kind best suited to its particular constitution. Obedience to this law is rewarded with a vigorous and healthy development of its powers; and in animals, with a pleasing consciousness of existence and aptitude for the performance of their natural functions; disobedience is punished with feebleness, stinted growth, general imperfection, or death. A single fact will illustrate this observation. At the meeting of the British Association, held in Edinburgh in 1834, an Abstract of a Registry, kept in the Lying-in Hospital of Great Britain Street, Dublin, from the year 1758 to the end of 1833, was read by Dr Joseph Clarke, from which it appeared, that, in 1781, when the hospital was imperfectly ventilated, every sixth child died within nine days after birth of convulsive disease, and that, after means of thorough ventilation had been adopted, the mortality of infants, within the same time, in five succeeding years, was reduced to nearly one in twenty.* A third organic law, applicable to man, is, that he shall duly exercise his organs, this condition being an indispensable requisite of health. The reward of obedience to this law, is enjoyment in the very act of exercising the functions, pleasing consciousness of existence, and

*Edin. New Phil. Jour. Oct. 1834, p. 416.