Sacramentum dicitur conferre gratiam ex opere operato, ita quod ex eo ipso, quod opus illud, puta sacramentum, exhibetur, nisi impediat obex peccati mortalis, gratia confertur utentibus, sic quod præter exhibitionem signi foris exhibiti non requiritur bonus motus interior in suscipiente. Ex opere operante vero dicuntur Sacramenta conferre gratiam per modum meriti, quod scilicet sacramentum foris exhibitum non sufficit ad gratiæ collationem, sed ultra hoc requiritur bonus motus seu devotio interior in suscipiente, secundum cujus intentionem confertur gratia, tanquam meriti condigni vel congrui, præcise, et non major propter exhibitionem sacramenti. (This latter view was also that of Scotus.)

8

Thomas, 1. c. Qu. 64, Art. 5:.... Ministri ecclesiæ possunt sacramenta conferre, etiamsi sint mali.-Art. 9: Sicut non requiritur ad perfectionem sacramenti, quod minister sit in charitate, sed possunt etiam peccatores sacramenta conferre, ita non requiritur ad perfectionem sacramenti fides ejus, sed infidelis potest verum sacramentum præbere, dummodo cætera adsint, quæ sunt de necessitate sacramenti. Concerning the intentio, compare ibidem and Art. 10. Münscher, edit. by Von Cölln, p. 196. Cramer, vii. pp. 712, 713. [Aquinas opposed the view-quod requiritur mentalis intentio in ministro, quæ si desit, non perficitur sacramentum; and maintained, quod minister sacramenti agit in persona totius ecclesiæ cujus est minister. In verbis autem quæ profert exprimitur intentio ecclesiæ; quæ sufficit ad perfectionem sacramenti, nisi contrarium externis exprimatur ex parte ministri, vel recipientis sacramentum. Comp. also Art. 10.]

9

Compare note 7.

Wycliffe criticised the doctrine of the sacraments very acutely. Trialo gus Lib. iv. c. 1. ss. In his opinion, a thousand other things (in their quality of rerum sacrarum signa) might be called sacraments, with quite as much propriety as the seven sacraments.... Multa dicta in ista materia habent nimis debile fundamentum, et propter aggregationem ac institutionem in terminis difficile est loquentibus habere viam impugnabilem veritatis.... Non enim video, quin quælibet creatura sensibilis sit realiter sacramentum, quia signum a Deo institutum ut rem sacram insensibilem significet, cujusmodi sunt creator et creatio et gratia creatoris. Comp. c. 25, where he designated the ceremonies which had been added to the sacraments, inventions of Antichrist, by which he had imposed a heavy burden upon the Church.Wessel expressed himself in milder terms on this point; he did not altogether disapprove of certain external additions (Chrisma), since, out of reverence the Church has surrounded the sacraments with greater pomp; but, concerning their effects, he opposed the doctrine which would represent them as being produced ex opere operato, and he made salvation. depend on the disposition of him who receives the sacrament; De Commun. Sanct., p. 817.

11

Ullmann, pp. 322, 333.

Mosheim, 1. c. p. 257: Dicunt, se credere, quod quidlibet Laicus bonus potest conficere corpus Christi, sicut sacerdos peccator. Item, quod sacerdos, postquam exuit se sacris vestibus, est sicut saccus evacuatus frumento. Item, quod corpus Christi æqualiter est in quolibet pane, sicut in pane sacramentali. Item, quod confiteri sacerdoti non est necessarium ad salutem. Item, quod corpus Christi vel sacramentum Eucharistiæ sumere per Laicum, tan

tum valet pro liberatione animæ defuncti, sicut celebratio Missæ a sacerdote. Item, quod omnis concubitus matrimonialis præter illum, in quo speratur bonum prolis, sit peccatum.-Comp. Berthold's Sermons, edited by Kling, pp. 308, 309.

3

§ 191.

BAPTISM.

The scholastics exhibited more originality in their discussions on the Lord's Supper, than in their inquiries into the doctrine of Baptism, where they confined themselves rather to particular points. In adherence to the allegorical system of Cyprian, they adopted the mystical interpretation of the water, as the liquid element, but exercised their ingenuity and fondness for subtile distinctions in pedantic definitions concerning the fluids to be used at the performance of the rite of baptism.' The baptism of blood was as well known during the present period as in preceding ages, with this difference only, that it was performed by those who inflicted tortures. upon themselves (Flagellantes) instead of by martyrs. The baptism of water could be administered by none but priests, except in cases of necessity. The doctrine of infant baptism had long been regarded by the Church as a settled point; Peter of Bruis, however, and some mystical sects, spoke of it in a slighting way. As infants, the subjects of baptism could not enter into any engagement themselves; an engagement was made for them by their godfathers and godmothers, according to the principle of Augustine: credit in altero, qui peccavit in altero.—Infant baptism was supposed to remove orignal sin, but it did not take away the concupiscentia (lex fomitis), though it lessened it by means of the grace imparted in baptism. In the case of grown up persons who are baptised, baptism not only effects the pardon of sins formerly committed, but it also imparts, according to Peter Lombard, assisting grace to perform virtuous actions.-The assertion of Thomas Aquinas, that children also obtained that grace, was confirmed by Pope Clement V. at the Synod of Vienne (A. D. 1311.)°

6

8

1 Compare Cramer, vii. p. 715. ss. Peter Lombard taught, Sent. Lib. iv. Dist. 3, G: non in alio liquore potest consecrari baptismus nisi in aqua; others, however, thought that the rite of baptism might also be performed with air, sand, or soil. (Schmid, J. A., de Baptismo per Arenam. Helmist. 1697. 4.) Various opinions obtained concerning the question, whether beer, broth, fish-sauce, mead or honey-water, lye or rose-water, might be used instead of pure water. See Meiners and Spittlers Neues Göttingen. historisches Magazin, Vol. iii. part 2, 1793, 8, (reprinted from Holderi dubietatibus circa Baptismum): Augusti, theologische Blätter, Vol. i. p. 170, ss.,

and his Archæologie vii. p. 206, ss. The scholastics carried their absurdities. so far, as to start the question: Quid faciendum, si puer urinaret (stercorizaret) in fontem? A distinction was also made between aqua artificialis, naturalis, and usualis. Many other useless and unprofitable contentions took place about the baptismal formulas; see Holder, 1. c.-Sprinkling also (instead of dipping) gave rise to many discussions. Thomas Aquinas, preferred the more ancient custom (Summa P. iii. Qu. 66, Art. 6), because immersion reminded Christians of the burial of Christ: but he did not think it absolutely necessary. From the thirteenth century, sprinkling came into more general use in the West. The Greek Church, however, and the Church of Milan, still retained the practice of immersion; see Augusti, Archæologie vii. p. 229, ss.*-On the question whether it was necessary to dip once, or thrice, see Holder, l. c. (he has collected many more instances of the ingenuity and acuteness of the casuists in reference to all possible difficulties.)

2 Thomas Aquinas, Qu. 66, Art. 11...... præter baptismum aquæ potest aliquis consequi sacramenti effectum ex passione Christi, inquantam quis ei conformatur pro Christo patiendo.-Concerning the Flagellantes, see Förstemann, die christlichen Geisslergesellschaften, Halle, 1828.

3 Peter Lombard, Sent. iv. Dist. 6, A (after Isidore of Spain): Constat baptismum solis sacerdotibus esse traditum, ejusque ministerium nec ipsis diaconis implere est licitum absque episcopo vel presbytero, nisi his procul absentibus, ultima languoris cogat necessitas: quod etiam laïcis fidelibus permittitur.-Compare Gratian. in Decret. de Consecrat. Dist. 4, c. 19.Thomas Aquinas, Summ. P. iii. Qu. 67, Art. 1–6. (The further definitions belong to the province of canon law.)

4

Comp. Petr. Ven. Cluniacensis adv. Petrobrusianos, in Bibl. PP. Max. Lugd. T. xxii. p. 1033.-The Paulicians, Bogomiles, Cathari, etc., opposed infant baptism; several of these sects (e. g., the Cathari) rejected baptism by water altogether. Comp. Moneta, advers. Catharos et Waldenses, Lib. v. c. i., p. 277, ss. Münscher, edit. by von Cölln, pp. 209, 210.

5

Comp. Vol. i. § 137, note 6, p. 390, Peter Lombard, Sent. L. iv. Dist. 6, G. Thomas Aquinas, Qu. 68, Art. 9: Regeneratio spiritualis, quæ fit per baptismum, est quodammodo similis nativitati carnali, quantum ad hoc, quod, sicut pueri in maternis uteris constituti non per se ipsos nutrimentum accipiunt, sed ex nutrimento matris sustentantur, ita etiam pueri nondum habentes usum rationis, quasi in utero matris ecclesiæ constituti, non per se ipsos, sed per actum ecclesiæ salutem suscipiunt.—The regulations concerning the ecclesiastical relationship in which the godfathers and godmothers stand to each other, belong to the canon law. Comp. Peter Lomb. L. iv. Dist. 42. Thomas Aquinas, P. iii. in Supplem. Qu. 56, Art. 3.—Decretalia Greg. IX. L. iv. T. 11. Sexti Decretal. L. iv. T. 3.

• Lombard, L. ii. Dist. 32, A. (in accordance with Augustine): Licet remaneat concupiscentia post baptismum, non tamen dominatur et regnat sicut ante imo per gratiam baptismi mitigatur et minuitur, ut post dominari

* Various regulations concerning the right performance of baptism may also be found in Berthold's Sermons, pp. 442, 443. Thus it is there said: "Young people ought not to baptize children for fun or mockery; nor ought foolish people to push a Jew into the water contrary to his wishes. Such doings are not valid.”

non valeat, nisi quis reddat vires hosti eundo post concupiscentias. Nec post baptismum remanet ad reatum, quia non imputatur in peccatum, sed tantum pœna peccati est; ante baptismum vero pœna est et culpa. Compare what follows. Thomas Aquinas, Summ. P. ii. Qu. 81, Art. 3: Peccatum originale per baptismum aufertur reatu, inquantum anima recuperat gratiam quantum ad mentem: remanet tamen peccatum originale actu, quantum ad fomitem, qui est inordinatio partium inferiorum animæ et ipsius corporis. Comp. P. iii. Qu. 27, Art. 3.

▾ Lombard Lib. iv. Dist. 4, H: De adultis enim, qui digne recipiunt sacramentum, non ambigitur, quin gratiam operantem et cooperantem perceperint. De parvulis vero, qui nondum ratione utuntur, quæstio est, an in baptismo receperint gratiam, qua ad majorem venientes ætatem possint velle et operari bonum. Videtur quod non receperint: quia gratia illa charitas est et fides, quæ voluntatem præparat et adjuvat. Sed quis duxerit eos accepisse fidem et charitatem? Si vero gratiam non receperint, qua bene operari possint cum fuerint adulti, non ergo sufficit eis in hoc statu gratia in baptismo data, nec per illam possunt modo boni esse, nisi alia addatur: quæ si non additur, non est ex eorum culpa, quia justificati [al. non] sunt a peccato. Quidam putant gratiam operantem et cooperantem cunctis parvulis in baptismo dari in munere, non in usu, ut, cum ad majorem venerint ætatem, ex munere sortiantur usum, nisi per liberum arbitrium usum muneris extinguant peccando: et ita ex culpa eorum est, non ex defectu gratiæ, quod mali fiunt. Thomas Aquinas, Qu. 69, Art. 6: Quia pueri, sicut et adulti, in baptismo efficiuntur membra Christi, unde necesse est, quod a capite recipiant influxum gratiæ et virtutis.

8

9 In Mansi, Tom. xxv. Col. 411, Münscher, ed. by von Cölln, p. 203. [Mansi, Col. 411: Baptisma unicum....celebratum in aqua, in nomine Patris, et Filii, et Spiritus Sancti, credimus esse tam adultis quam parvulis communiter perfectum remedium ad salutem. Verum quantum ad effectum cum theologi varias opiniones habeant; videlicet dicentibus quibusdam, parvulis culpam, remitti, sed gratiam non conferri; aliis e contra assientibus quod et culpa eisdem in baptismo remittitur, et virtutes ac informans gratia infunduntur quoad habitum, etsi non pro illo tempore quoad usum: nos attendentes generalem efficaciam mortis Christi, quæ per baptisma applicatur pariter omnibus baptizatis, opinionem secundam, quæ dicit tam parvulis quam adultis conferri in baptismo, gratiam informantem et virtutes, tanquam probabiliorem et dictis Sanctorum et doctorum modernorum theologiæ magis consonam et concordem, sacro approbante Concilio, duximus eligendam.]

The repetition of the rite of baptism was not in accordance with the nature of that sacrament. But theologians differed in their opinions respecting the question, whether those who are prevented by circumstances from being baptised, may be saved? In opposition to earlier divines (such as Rabanus Maurus), later theologians, e. g. Bernard of Clairval, Peter Lombard, and Thomas Aquinas, maintained, that in such cases the will alone was sufficient. Compare the passages quoted by Münscher, edit. by von Cölln, pp. 205, 206. [Aquinas, Qu. 68, Art. 2: Alio modo potest sacramentum baptismi alicui deesse re, sed non voto sicut cum aliquis baptizari desiderat, sed aliquo casu prævenitur morte, antequam baptismum suscipiat. Et talis sine baptismo actuali salutem consequi potest propter desiderium baptismi, quod procedit ex fide per dilectionem operante, per quam Deus interius hominem sanctificat, cujus potentia sacramentis visibilibus non alligatur.]

§ 192.

CONFIRMATION.

Klee, Dogmengeschichte, ii. p. 160-170. J. F. Bachmann, Geschichte der Einführung der Confirmation innerhalb d. Evangel. Kirche. Berlin, 1852. [Jo. Dallaus, de duabus Latinorum ex Unctione Sacramentis, Confirmatione et extrema Unctione, Genev., 1669. Ibid. De Cultibus religios. Latinorum, L. ix., 1671. In reply, Natal. Alexander, Hist. Eccles. Sæc. II. Diss. x. N. Wiseman, Lectures on the Offices and Ceremonies, etc. H. Hepwood, the Order and History of Confirmation, 2d ed., 1850. Church Review (New Haven), Difference of Protest. Episc. and Rom. Cath. View of Confirmation, April, 1852. T. Smyth, the Rite of Confirmation, 1845.]

2

Confirmation (xpioua, confirmatio) originally connected with baptism, was, in the course of time, separated from it, as a particular rite, and then came to be viewed as a sacrament, which only the bishop could administer. As the first motion to spiritual life is the effect of baptism, so its growth is promoted by the rite of confirmation. Its characteristic is invigoration ; and so, those who are made members of this spiritual knighthood were smitten on the cheek. Moreover baptism must precede confirmation. Nor ought the latter rite to be performed without godfathers and godmothers.* All these regulations were confirmed by Pope Eugen IV. But Wycliffe and Hus declared confirmation to be an abuse."

1

3

6

Compare Augusti, Archæologie, vii. p. 401, ss. On the origin of this sacrament, and its reference to a Council of Meaux (Concilium Meldense), as alleged by Alexander of Hales, see Gieseler, Dogmengesch. 527. [Alexander got this notion from the Decretum Gratiani, where a statement about Confirmation is headed-Ex Concil. Meldens. But the passage is from a Paris Council, A. D. 829. But Alexander, though wrong, seems unconsciously to imply, that a sacrament might be directly instituted by the church; which Aquinas denies, saying, that the sacraments must be appointed or promised by Christ.]

2 Melchiades in Epist. ad Hisp. Episcopos (in Peter Lombard, Sent. Lib. iv. Dist. 7); Thomas Aquinas, Art. 6, and 7 (quoted by Münscher, edit. by von Cölln, pp. 211, 212). [Melchiades (in Pseudo-Isidor.) says: Sp. S. in fonte plenitudinem tribuit ad innocentiam: in confirmatione augmentum præstat ad gratiam. Et quia in hoc mundo tota ætate victoris inter invisibiles hostes et pericula gradiendum est: in baptismo regeneramur ad vitam, post baptismum confirmamur ad pugnam.... Aquinas, Art. 6: Character confirmationis ex necessitate præsupponit characterem baptismalem: ita scilicet quod, si aliquis non baptizatus confirmaretur, nihil reciperet, sed oporteret iterato ipsum confirmari post baptismum (against the Catharists.)] Bonaventura Brevil. P. vi. c. 8, quoted by Klee, Dogmengeschichte, ii. p. 165. [Bonaventura says: Primo ergo, quoniam confessio hæc debet esse integra, et integritas confessionis non est, nisi quis confiteatur Christum verum hominem pro hominibus crucifixum, eundemque verum Dei filium in