Charles the Second; Guillaume quatre, William the Fourth; Louis quatorze, Lewis the Fourteenth.

74. For the titles of chapters and sections, &c., in books, the French use the ordinal, and sometimes the cardinal numbers, except for the first, and then the article the is not expressed: Chapitre premier, section seconde, chapter the first, section the second.

75. To point out the hour, they say in French: Il est deux heures, it is two o'clock; il est trois heures et demie, it is half-past three; il est quatre heures et un quart (un quart, et quart), it is a quarter past four; il est cinq heures moins un quart, it is a quarter to five; but for twelve o'clock at noon, midi is used, and minuit for midnight: A midi et demi, at half-past twelve.

76. Demi takes the mark of the feminine (demie) when it comes after a feminine substantive; but if demi is before the substantive, it remains invariable: Une heure et demie, une demi-heure.

77. To express age, they say in French: Quel âge avez-vous? j'ai vingt ans, how old are you? I am twenty. The pupil must always use the verb to have, but never the verb to be, and the word ans, not années, years.

heure ;

I am twenty-one (years of age);
(77);

it was half-past eleven;
il était (71, 75)

at twelve;

je me

couche

(75) ;

he was born

in 1769;

it happened in 1800; cela arriva

is it

to go to Paris in twelve
aller
Paris en

il est né en (write the numbers in full length); two hundred men and two hundred and fifty

(19)

year; an army livre par an ; armée, f.,

he has a thousand (pounds) a
(69)

a man of eighty or eighty-five (years);

en (69);

homme et

(70) fois, f.;

the first time; the second lesson;

take the half of that orange;

j'ai acheté (69) chapter the 10th;

verse the 20th;

leçon, f.;

(74)

verset (74);

(71)

cette orange;

the fourth of my work;

mon ouvrage;

one-tenth of his fortune;

sa fortune, f.;

Are words used to avoid the repetition of nouns. There are five sorts of pronouns: personal, possessive, demonstrative, relative, and indefinite.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

78. Personal pronouns used as subjects or nominatives to the verb :-

The pronouns of the first form are those which are generally used with, and joined to, verbs; they are called conjunctive, as being more closely connected with the verb, and are placed before it, as in English; but, in interrogative sentences, they are placed after the verb, as such is the only way to form a question: Je parle, I speak; j'aime, I like; parlez-vous? do you speak? parlait-il ? did he speak? Do, does, did, are never translated in this case. If the question begins with a substantive, the pronouns il, ils, elle, or elles, must be added, according to the gender and number: Votre frère est-il ici? is your brother here? vos sœurs sont-elles à la maison? are your sisters at home? (The substantive is placed before the verb.) When speaking of anything of the feminine gender, the pupil must use elle, elles; and he must never separate these pronouns from the verb by an adverb, except by ne in negations: Je vais toujours, I always go; je ne parle jamais, I never speak. The French, like the English, use vous (you) in speaking to one person; tu, toi, are only used between brothers, sisters, married couples, young children, &c.

79. In four cases, there is a second form; these are called disjunctive, as they are frequently separated from the verb. Lui, eux, are used for persons and animals only. They are used: Firstly, when the verb has several subjects: Mon frère et lui sont partis, iny brother and he are gone; vous et eux vous êtes riches, you and they are rich; lui et moi nous sommes pauvres, he and I are poor; ni lui ni moi n'avons dîné, neither he nor I have dined: Secondly, when there is no verb joined to the pronoun, or when this follows the words c'est, it is: Qui a fait cela? moi, or c'est moi, who did that? I did; qui a pris mon canif? c'est lui, or lui, ce n'est pas moi, who took my pen-knife? he did, I did not (it is not I); Je fais comme lui, I do as he does; il est plus grand que moi, he is taller than I: Thirdly, when a relative pronoun, qui, que, dont, &c., comes after the personal pronoun: Moi qui suis si tranquille, I who am so quiet; lui qui est si riche, he who is so rich: Fourthly, with an exclamation before an infinitive, or when there are several verbs with different subjects, or when contrary feelings or intentions are spoken of; in these cases both pro

nouns are used: Moi, vous voler! what, I rob you! vous partez, moi je resterai, you go, I will stay; lui, il le croit, moi je ne le crois pas, he believes it, but I do not.

80. Personal pronouns in the genitive and ablative, or preceded by of, from, in English ::

81. En is the only pronoun used for things; it is placed before the verb, except with the first and second person of the imperative, when not used negatively. It is frequently employsd to designate individuals in the third person, instead of de lui, d'elle, &c.; but very seldom in the first and second person, and only then to avoid repetition: J'en parle, I speak of it (of him, of her); j'en ai parlé, I have spoken of it (of them); parlez-en, speak of it (of him, of her). As en is of such extensive use, it has been thought fit to speak of it at some length elsewhere. (See Rule 92).

82. As every pronoun, preceded by a preposition expressed, is placed after the verb, all the foregoing pronouns, except en, are placed after it. The same pronouns are used after all other prepositions: Il parle de moi, he speaks of me; ceci est pour lui, this is for him.

83. Personal pronouns in the dative case, or preceded by to, at, in English :-

84. The pronouns of the first form are placed before the verb, and in compound tenses before the auxiliary, except in the first and second person of the imperative, when not used negatively; in this case, however, moi is used instead of me, if not followed by en: Donnez-moi, give me; parlez-m' en, speak to me of it. The pronouns of the first form are always used, except when the second form is required (see Rule 86): Je vous parle, I speak to you; je lui écris, I write to him (to her); je leur parlerai, I will speak to them; écrivez-moi, write to me; je vous ai écrit, I have written to you; ne me parlez pas, don't speak to me.

85. The above pronouns correspond to to me, to him, &c.; they also stand for me, him, her, us, you, them, whenever these words mean to me, to him, &c. ; they are likewise used with all verbs governing the dative case in French, and then they represent the preposition à Je lui donne une leçon, I give him a lesson; je lui montre le chemin, I show him the way; donnez-moi, give me ; il me donne, he gives me ; je lui envoie de l'argent, I send him money. Here, it is evident that I give him, I show him, mean I give to him, I show to him. The pupil must also say: Je lui obéis, I obey him; je leur dis, I tell them (say to them), because the verbs obéir, dire, govern the dative case in French.

86. When the second form is employed, the pronouns are placed after the verb, as is the case when they are preceded by a preposition. This form is used: Firstly, when the verb has several objects, or to mark opposition and division: Je parle à vous et à lui, I speak to you and to him: je le donne à lui

et non pas à vous, I give it to him and not to you: Secondly, when there is no verb, and when to me stands alone: Thirdly, with reflected verbs, and, even in the imperative, à moi, and not moi, is employed: Je me recommande à vous, I recommend myself to you; adressez-vous à moi, à lui, à eux, address yourself (apply) to me, to him, to them: Fourthly, with the verbs penser, songer, to think; viser, to aim; accourir, to hasten; and with aller, courir, venir; but in the latter case the preposition vers is used more frequently than à; Je pense (songe) à vous, I think of you; pensez à moi, think of me: And fifthly, in such sentences as: C'est à moi à jouer, it is my turn to play; il est à moi, à vous, it is mine, yours (see Rule 116); c'est à lui que je parle, it is to him that I speak.

87. As the pronouns of the third person, lui, leur, are used chiefly for persons and animals, y must be used in speaking of things; it is invariable, and is placed before the verb in the same cases as the pronouns of the first form: J'y fais attention, I pay attention to it; faites-y attention, pay attention to it (mind it); j'y pense, I think of it. (Penser requires the dative.)

88. Lui, leur, for both genders, are, however, sometimes used in speaking of things, when they are, as it were, personified, and with verbs chiefly used in reference to persons; as: Devoir, être redevable, convenir, être convenable, donner, &c.; ce livre est précieux, je lui dois mon instruction. y very often signifies in it, in them, there: J'y mets de l'eau, I put water in it. 89. PERSONAL PRONOUNS IN THE ACCUSATIVE, OR DIRECT OBJECTS

Me,

TO THE VERB.

90. The pronouns of the first form are placed before the verb, except in the first and second persons of the imperative, when not used in the negative; when, however, nonegation accompanies the imperative, moi must be used after the verb, and not me. In the compound tenses, these pronouns are placed before the auxiliary verb: Il m'aime, he likes me; je le vois, I see him; il la connaît, he knows her; il nous ennuie, he tires us; je vous remercie, I thank you; je les aime, I like them; aimez-moi, love me; ne me battez pas, do not beat me; je vous ai vu, I have seen you.

91. The pronouns of the second form must be used: Firstly, when they stand alone without a verb, and after c'est, it is: C'est moi qu'il a invité, it is I he has invited Secondly, when the verb has several objects: Il nous aime, moi et mon frère, he likes me and my brother; je les ai invités, eux et leurs enfants, I have invited them and their children. (Observe that in this case a pronoun plural must be added before the verb): And thirdly, after a preposition, and comme, que: Je vous aime mieux que lui, I like you better than him; venez avec moi, avec lui, come with me, with him. Lui, elle, eux, elles, in the accusative, are used only for persons and animals, very seldom for things.

ON THE PRONOUN EN.

92. Besides the use made of en, indicated in Rules 80 and 81, it is the only word employed to express some, any, some of it, when these words are not followed by a substantive; from there is also translated by en: En avezvous? oui, j'en ai, j'en ai acheté; have you any? yes, I have some, I have bought some; prenez-en, take some; je n'en ai jamais, I never have any; n'en achetez pas, do not buy any; j'en viens, I come from there (thence).

93. En must always be used, although not expressed in English, with numbers, with all words signifying quantity, with negations, with the words another, a good one, a bad one, or with any adjective used in reference to a preceding substantive after a verb: J'en ai beaucoup, I have a great deal (many); vous en avez trop, you have too much (of it); j'en ai un ou deux, I have one or two; j'en prends un, I take one; il en a quelques-uns, he has a few; prenezen deux, take two; j'en ai mangé quatre, I have eaten four; j'en ai un autre, I have another; je n'en ai point, I have none (not any); avez-vous une plume? j'en ai une bonne, have you a pen? I have a good one.

94. En is also used in French for with it, for it, at it, with them, &c., with adjectives governing the preposition de (see Syntax): J'en suis content, I am pleased with it (them, him, her); il en est fâché, he is sorry for it; j'en suis charmé, I am delighted at it. En is also the French for the English preposition in, when no article is used after it.

moi-même.

à moi-même, à moi.
de moi, de moi-même.
toi-même, toi.

lui-même.

à lui, à lui-même, à soi.
de lui, de lui-même, de soi.
elle-même.

à elle, à elle-même.

d'elle, d'elle-même.

soi (after a preposition).
de soi.

soi, soi-même.

à soi, à soi-même.
de soi, de soi-même.
nous-mêmes, nous.

à nous, à nous-mêmes.
de nous, de nous-mêmes.
vous-même, vous.
vous-mêmes, vous.
à vous-même(s), à vous.
de vous-même(s), de vous.
eux-mêmes.

à eux-mêmes.

d'eux, d'eux-mêmes.
elles-mêmes.

à elles-mêmes.
d'elles-mêmes, d'elles.

96. The pronouns of the first form must always be used with reflected verbs, which they must precede, except when the verb is in the first or second person of the imperative, unaccompanied by a negation. Se, which is both masculine and feminine, is used both in the singular and plural, for the accusative and dative: S'habiller, to dress one's self (to dress); je m'habille, tu t'habilles, il s'habille, nous nous habillons, vous vous habillez, ils s'habillent, I dress myself, &c.