the programme of a Conference also come within the category of previous preparation.

The principal Congresses and Conferences of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries are the following:

I. Congress of Vienna, 1814-15.

II. Conference on the Affairs of Belgium, London,

1830-33.

III. Conference on Danish Affairs, London, 1850-52. IV. Congress of Paris, 1856.

V. Conference respecting Neutralization of Luxemburg, London, 1867.

VI. Conference respecting Inviolability of Treaties, and the Neutralization of the Black Sea, London,

1871.

VII. Congress of Berlin, 1878.

VIII. Conference on the Affairs of Africa, Berlin, 1884-5. IX. First Hague Peace Conference, 1899.

X. Conference of Algeciras on the Affairs of Morocco, 1906.

XI. Second Hague Peace Conference, 1907.

XII. International Naval Conference, London, 1908–9. XIII. Conferences of London on Balkan Affairs, 1912-13. XIV. Conference of Bucarest for the restoration of peace after the Second Balkan War, 1913.

The negotiations at Amiens, 1801-2, between Great Britain and France, for the conclusion of peace, which are often styled a 'Congress', had not really that character, as the allies of the respective parties took no part in the discussions. The meeting of Austrian, Prussian, and Russian plenipotentiaries at Prague in 1813 with those of Napoleon, which produced no result, and the similar meeting in February 1814 at Châtillon, where British plenipotentiaries also appeared, and which again broke without coming to a conclusion, are often spoken of as Congresses. They are of interest chiefly as showing

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that discussions about peace terms before a decisive result has been attained in the field are unlikely to lead to peace.

The meetings of sovereigns and plenipotentiaries of the Five Great Powers at Aachen in 1818, Troppau in 1820, Laibach in 1821, and Verona in 1822, can scarcely be regarded as Congresses, though the last three are usually so described. The first of these meetings was called for the purpose of deciding whether the military occupation of portions of French territory stipulated for by Art. V of the Treaty of November 20, 1815,1 might be brought to an end; and the circular 2 of the four Powers convoking it expressly disclaimed the intention of holding a Congress. The object of the gatherings of 1820, 1821, and 1822 was to apply the policy of the Holy Alliance to the suppression of revolutionary movements in Naples, Piedmont, and Spain; and these meetings need not be discussed here.

Of Conferences not treated of in these pages, those on the affairs of Greece (London, 1827-32); to present peace proposals for terminating the Crimean War (Vienna, 1855); abolition of the Sound Dues (Copenhagen, 1857); affairs of the Danubian Principalities (Paris, 1858); pacification of Syria (Paris, 1860-1); redemption of the Stade Toll (Hanover, 1861); redemption of the Scheldt Dues (Brussels, 1863); affairs of Denmark, 1864; amelioration of the condition of Wounded Soldiers (Geneva, 1864); prohibition of the use of explosive projectiles of less than 400 grammes weight (Petersburg, 1868); treatment of Sick and Wounded Soldiers (Geneva, 1868); Cretan Affairs (Paris, 1869); Rules of Warfare on Land (Brussels, 1874); Turkish Affairs (Constantinople, 1876-7); Navigation of the Danube (London, 1883); Chinese Affairs (Peking, 1900-1); and revision of the Genevan Convention of

1 B. and F.S. P. iii. 280; D'Angeberg, Le Congrès de Vienne, 1599. 2 B. and F. S. P. v. 1216; D'Angeberg, 1743.

1864 (Geneva, 1906)-present no features of special interest, and throw no light on the question of procedure. Information respecting them, if desired, can be gained from Satow, A Guide to Diplomatic Practice, ii. 94–151.1

1 In the Appendix will be found some particulars regarding (a) the Conference of Madrid (1880); (b) the Treaties of Zürich (1859), Prague (1866), Vienna (1866), Frankfort (1871), San Stefano (1878), and Portsmouth (1905), which were not included in the general treatment, as resulting from Conferences of a very limited nature; (c) the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918), about which full and exact information is not yet accessible.

Congresses

PART I

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

1. PLACE OF MEETING.

THE locality at which a Congress or Conference will be held must be determined by circumstances. In many instances it has been held at the capital of that Power which had taken the initiative in the negotiations resulting in an agreement for its convocation, or which was specially interested in the settlement of the questions involved. In former times Peace Conferences were mostly convened at some spot in belligerent territory specially neutralized for the purpose; or the choice has lain with the Power which had attained the greater measure of success in the war. Possibly the capital of a neutral Power, easily accessible to the plenipotentiaries, may, for various reasons, be the best meeting-place. In Part II the reasons which determined the selection of the particular locality in each case will be indicated.

2. ARMISTICE.

Articles 36 to 41 of the Land War Regulations' (Règlement concernant les Lois et Coutumes de la Guerre sur Terre'), agreed to at the Hague Peace Conference of 1899 and renewed at the Second Hague Peace Conference of 1907, are as follows:

ART. 36.

L'armistice suspend les opérations de guerre par un accord mutuel des parties belligérantes. Si la durée n'en est pas déterminée, les parties belligérantes peuvent reprendre en tout temps les opérations, pourvu toutefois que l'ennemi soit averti en temps convenu, conformément aux conditions de l'armistice.

ART. 37.

L'armistice peut être général ou local. Le premier suspend partout les opérations de guerre des États belligérants; le second,

seulement entre certains fractions des armées belligérantes et dans un rayon déterminé.

ART. 38.

'L'armistice doit être notifié officiellement et en temps utile aux autorités compétentes et aux troupes. Les hostilités sont suspendues immédiatement après la notification ou au terme fixé.

ART. 39.

Il dépend des Parties contractantes de fixer, dans les clauses de l'armistice, les rapports qui pourraient avoir lieu, sur le théâtre de la guerre, avec les populations et entre elles.

ART. 40.

'Toute violation grave de l'armistice, par l'une des Parties, donne à l'autre le droit de le dénoncer, et même, en cas d'urgence, de reprendre immédiatement les hostilités.

ART. 41.

'La violation des clauses de l'armistice, par des particuliers agissant de leur propre initiative, donne droit seulement à réclamer la punition des coupables et, s'il y a lieu, une indemnité pour les pertes éprouvées.'

In so far as these rules are to be considered as applicable only to an armistice between land forces, they must be regarded as defining only a partial armistice. It will also be noted that they do not speak of a mere suspension of arms.

arms.

An armistice is to be distinguished from a suspension of The latter is a temporary cessation of hostilities of a local character, and for such purposes as collection of the wounded, burial of the dead, negotiation for surrender or evacuation of a defended place, or regarding a partial armistice; also to enable a commander to obtain instructions from a superior authority. Armistices are concluded only in connexion with negotiations for the conclusion of peace.1

A general armistice suspends the entire military and

1 L. Oppenheim, International Law, London, 1912, ii. § 232.