tion between the Germanic body and the Church. The way, the bishops and priests imprudently had recourse Germans had received from Rome that element of to the extreme means at their disposal. Sometimes modern civilization, the faith. Instruction, legislation, the pope interfered; and it was to give an example of all, save their courage and their weapons, had come to the most revolting partiality, or to endure the humithem from the Sacerdotal city. Strong ties had from liating necessity of leaving the triumph in the hands that time attached Germany to the papacy. The of the commons, obstinately resolved to maintain their former was a spiritual conquest of the latter, and we right. These continual conflicts had filled the cities know to what use Rome has ever turned her conquests. with hatred and contempt of the pope, and the bishops, Other nations, which had held the faith and civilization and the priests. before the Roman pontiff existed, had continued in more independence of him. But this subjection of Germany was destined only to make the reaction more powerful at the moment of awakening. When Germany should open her eyes, she would indignantly tear away the trammels in which she had been so long kept bound. The very measure of slavery she had had to endure would make her deliverance and liberty more indispensable to her, and strong champions of the truth would come forth from the enclosure of control and restriction in which her population had for ages been shut up.

When we take a nearer view of the times of the Reformation, we see, in the government of Germany, still farther reasons to admire the wisdom of Him by whom kings reign and princes execute judgment. There was at that time something resembling what has, in our own days, been termed a system of see-saw. When an energetic sovereign presided over the empire, the imperial power was strengthened; on the other hand, when he was of feeble character, the authority of the electors gained force.

But not only among the burgomasters, counsellors, and town clerks did Rome and the clergy find adversaries; they had opponents both above and below the middle classes of society. From the commencement of the sixteenth century the Imperial Diet displayed an inflexible firmness against the papal envoys. In May, 1510, the states assembled at Augsburg handed to the emperor a statement of ten leading grievances against the pope and clergy of Rome. About the same time there was a violent ferment among the populace. It broke out in 1512, in the Rhenish provinces; where the peasantry, indignant at the weight of the yoke imposed by their ecclesiastical sovereigns, formed among themselves the League of the Shoes.

Thus, on all side, from above and from beneath, was heard a low murmur, the forerunner of the thunderbolt that was about to fall. Germany appeared ripe for the work appointed for the sixteenth century. Providence, in its slow course, had prepared all things; and even the passions which God condemns were to be turned by His power to the fulfilment of his purposes. Let us take a view of other nations.

4: 7.

Under Maximilian, the predecessor of Charles V., Thirteen small republics, placed with their allies in this alternate rise and depression of the various states the centre of Europe, among mountains which compose, was especially remarkable. At that time the balance as it were, its citadel, formed a simple and brave popuwas altogether against the emperor. The princes had lation. Who would have thought of looking to these repeatedly formed close alliances with one another. obscure valleys for the men whom God would choose The emperors themselves had urged them to do so, in to be, jointly with the children of the Germans, the order that they might direct them at one effort against liberators of the Church? Who would have guessed some common enemy. But the strength that the that poor and unknown villages, just raised above barprinces acquired from such alliances against a passing barism-hidden among inaccessible mountains, in the danger, might, at an after period, be turned against the extremity of lakes never named in history-would, in encroachments or power of the emperor. This did their connexion with Christianity, eclipse Jerusalem, indeed ensue. At no period had the electors felt them- Antioch, Ephesus, Corinth, and Rome? Yet so it was. selves more independent of their head than at the Such was the will of Him who causeth it to rain upon period of the Reformation. And their head having one city, and causeth it not to rain upon another city, taken part against it, it is easy to see that this state of and maketh his showers to descend on one piece of things was favourable to the propagation of the Gospel.land, while another withereth under drought. Amos We may add that Germany was weary of what the Romans contemptuously termed "the patience of the Circumstances of another kind seemed to surround Germans." The latter had, in truth, manifested much with multiplied rocks the course of the Reformation in patience ever since the time of Louis of Bavaria. the bosom of the Swiss population. If, in a monarchy, From that period the emperors had laid down their it had to fear the hindrances of power, in a democracy arms, and the ascendency of the tiara over the crown it was exposed to the hazards of the precipitation of of the Cæsars was acknowledged. But the battle had the people. True, this Reformation, which, in the only changed its field. It was to be fought on lower states of the empire, could but advance slowly and step ground. The same contests, of which emperors and by step, might have its success decided in one day in popes had set the example, were quickly renewed in the general council of the Swiss republic. But it was miniature, in all the towns of Germany, between bish-necessary to guard against an imprudent haste, which, ops and magistrates. The commonalty had caught up unwilling to wait a favourable moment, should abruptly the sword dropped by the chiefs of the empire. As introduce innovations otherwise most useful, and so early as 1329, the citizens of Frankfort on the Oder had compromise the public peace, the constitution of the resisted, with intrepidity, their ecclesiastical superiors. state, and even the future prospects of the ReformaExcommunicated for their fidelity to the Margrave tion itself. Louis, they had remained twenty-eight years without But Switzerland also had had its preparations. It masses, baptisms, marriage or funeral rites. And was a wild tree, but one of generous nature, which had afterward, when the monks and priests reappeared, they been guarded in the depth of the valleys, that it might had openly ridiculed their return as a farce. Deplora- one day be grafted with a fruit of the highest value. ble irreverence, doubtless; but of which the clergy Providence had diffused among this recent people themselves were the cause. At the epoch of the principles of courage, independence, and liberty, desReformation the animosity between the magistrates and the ecclesiastics had increased. Every hour the privileges and temporal possessions of the clergy gave rise to collision. If the magistrates refused to give

tined to manifest all their strength when the signal of conflict with Rome should be given. The pope had conferred on the Swiss the title of protectors of the liberties of the Church; but it seems they had under

stood this honourable name in a totally different sense | stopped and challenged, if it sought to cross the Alps, from the pontiff. If their soldiers guarded the pope in or to land on those smiling shores. It was true, the the neighbourhood of the capitol, their citizens, in the papacy was then planning a union of all Italy, desiring, bosom of the Alps, carefully guarded their own religious as Pope Julius expressed it, to expel the barbarians— liberties against the invasion of the pope and of the that is, the foreign princes; and she hovered like a bird clergy. Ecclesiastics were forbidden to have recourse of prey over the mutilated and palpitating members of to any foreign jurisdiction. The "lettre des pretres" ancient Italy. But if she had gained her ends, we was a bold protest of Swiss liberty against the corrup-may easily believe that the Reformation would not tions and power of the clergy. Zurich was especially have been thereby advanced. distinguished by its courageous opposition to the claims of Rome. Geneva, at the other extremity of Switzerland, struggled against its bishops. Doubtless the love of political independence may have made many of its citizens forget the true liberty; but God had decreed that this love of independence should lead others to the reception of a doctrine which should truly enfranchise the nation. These two leading cities distinguished themselves among all the rest in the great struggle we have undertaken to describe.

PORTUGAL-FRANCE-LOW COUNTRIES-ENGLAND.

29

the Moors, she had, at the expense of her noblest blood, | Perhaps, if she had received the Gospel, she might have
thrown down the crescent from the towers of Granada, become too powerful. God had chosen a weaker peo-
and many other cities, and planted in its place the cross ple-a people that, as yet, was not to be the depo-
of Jesus Christ. This great zeal for Christianity, sitory of his truth. France, after having been almost
which promised so much-turned against the truth-reformed, found herself, in the result, Roman Catholic.
for could Catholic Spain, that had triumphed over The sword of her princes, cast into the scale, caused
infidels, refuse to oppose heretics? How could a it to incline in favour of Rome. Alas! another sword,
people who had expelled Mahomet from their noble that of the Reformers themselves, insured the failure
country, allow Luther to make way in it? Their of the effort for reformation. The hands that had
kings went farther. They fitted out their fleets against become accustomed to warlike weapons, ceased to be
the Reformation. They went forth to meet and lifted up in prayer. It is by the blood of its confessors,
conquer it in England and in Holland. But these not by that of its adversaries, that the Gospel triumphs.
attacks had the effect of elevating the nations assailed; Blood shed by its defenders, extinguishes and smothers
and, 'ere long, their power crushed the power of Spain. it. Francis I., in the very beginning of his reign,
Thus those Catholic countries lost, owing to the Refor- eagerly sacrificed the Pragmatical Sanction to the
mation, that very temporal wealth which had led them papacy, substituting a concordat detrimental to France,
at the first to reject the spiritual liberty of the Gospel. and advantageous to the crown and to the pope.
Yet the Spanish nation was generous and brave; and Maintaining by his sword the rights of the German
many of its noble people, with equal ardour, and better Protestants at war with his rival, this "father of the
knowledge than those who had rushed upon the swords sciences" plunged it up to the hilt in the hearts of
of the Arabs, gave up their lives at the stake to the his own reformed subjects. His successors did, from
Inquisition.
motives of fanaticism, or weakness, or to silence the
clamours of a guilty conscience, what he had done for
ambition. They met, indeed, with a powerful resis-
tance, but it was not always such as the martyrs of the
first ages had opposed to their pagan persecutors.
The strength of the Protestants was the source of their
weakness; their success drew after it their ruin.

Portugal was nearly in the same condition as Spain. Emanuel the Fortunate gave to it an age of gold," which tended to unfit it for that self-denial which Christianity requires. The nation, precipitating itself on the newly-discovered routes to India and the Brazils, turned its back upon Europe and the Reformation.

Few countries seemed likely to be better disposed The Low Countries formed, at that period, one of the than France for the reception of the evangelical most flourishing portions of Europe. Its population doctrines. Almost all the intellectual and spiritual life was industrious, better informed owing to its numerous of the middle ages was concentrated in her. It might connexions with different regions of the earth, full of have been said that the paths were every where trodden courage, and passionately attached to its independence, for a grand manifestation of the truth. Men of the its privileges, and its liberty. On the very borders of most opposite characters, and whose influence over Germany, it would be the first to hear the report of the the people had been most powerful, had in some degree Reformation; it was capable of receiving it. But all countenanced the Reformation. Saint Bernard had did not receive it. To the poor it was given to receive set the example of that heartfelt faith, that inward the truth. The hungry were filled with good things, piety, which is the most beautiful feature of its and the rich sent empty away. The Netherlands, which character. Abelard had introduced into the study of had always been more or less connected with the emtheology the rational principle which, though incapable pire, had forty years before fallen to the possession of of developing the truth, is yet powerful for the destruc- Austria, and, after Charles V., they devolved to the tion of error. Many heretics, so called, had revived Spanish branch, and so to the ferocious Philip. The the light of God's word in the provinces. The Univer-princes and governors of this ill-fated country trampled sity of Paris had placed itself in opposition to the the Gospel under foot, and waded through the blood of Church, and had not feared to combat it. In the its martyrs. The country was composed of two divibeginning of the fifteenth century the Clemangis and sions, widely dissimilar the one from the other. The the Gersons had spoken out with undaunted courage. south, rich and increased in goods, succumbed. How The Pragmatic Sanction had been a grand act of inde- could its extensive manufactures, carried to such perpendence, and promised to be the palladium of Gallic fection-how could Bruges, the great mart of northern liberty. The French nobility, numerous, jealous of merchandise, or Antwerp, the queen of commercial their pre-eminence, and having at this period been cities, make their interests consist with a long and gradually deprived of their privileges by the growing bloody struggle for the things of faith? But the norpower of their kings, must have been favourably dis- thern provinces, defended by their dykes, the sea, their posed toward a religious change which might restore marshes, and, still more, by the simple manners of the to them some portion of the independence they had population, and their determination to suffer the loss of lost. The people, of quick feelings, intelligent, and all, rather than of the Gospel, not only preserved their ́susceptible of generous emotions, were as open, or franchises, their privileges, and their faith, but achieved even more so, than most other nations, to the truth. independence and a glorious existence as a nation. It seemed as if the Reformation must be, among them, England then gave little promise of all she has subthe birth which should crown the travail of several sequently acquired. Driven from the continent, where centuries. But the chariot of France, which for so she had long obstinately contended for the conquest of many generations seemed to be advancing to the same France, she began to turn her eyes toward the ocean goal, suddenly turned at the moment of the Reforma- as to the empire which was designed to be the true end tion, and took a contrary direction. Such was the will of her victories, and of which the inheritance was reof Him who rules nations and their kings. The prince, served for her. Twice converted to Christianity, first then seated in the chariot, and holding the reins, and under the Britons, then under the Anglo-Saxons, she who, as a patron of learning, seemed likely to be fore-paid devoutly the annual tribute of St. Peter's pence. most in promoting the Reformation, turned his people Yet was she reserved for a lofty destiny. Mistress of in another direction. The augury of ages was deceived, the ocean, everywhere present through all parts of the and the impulse given to France was spent and lost in struggles against the ambition and fanaticism of her kings. The race of Valois deprived her of her rights.

earth, she was ordained to be one day, with the people
to whom she should give birth, as the hand of God to
scatter tho seed of life in remotest islands and on bound-

H

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30

BOHEMIA AND HUNGARY-FREDERIC THE WISE.

less continents. Already some circumstances gave | wealth and generosity, raised him above his equals.❤ presage of her destinies. Great intellectual light had God selected him to serve as a tree, under shadow of shown in the British Isles, and some glimmerings of it which the seed of truth might put forth its first shoot still remained. A crowd of foreigners, artists, mer-without being rooted up by the tempests around it. chants, workmen, from the Low Countries, Germany, Born at Torgau in 1463, he manifested, from his and other regions, thronged her harbours and cities. early youth, much love for science, philosophy, and The new religious opinions would, therefore, be easily piety. Succeeding, in 1487, in conjunction with his and quickly introduced. Finally, England had then brother John, to the government of the hereditary states an eccentric king, who, endowed with some learning of his family, he received the dignity of elector from and considerable courage, was continually changing his the Emperor Frederic III. In 1493 the pious prince purposes and notions, and turning from one side to undertook a pilgrimage to the Holy Sepulchre. Henry another, according to the direction in which his violent of Schaumburg on that sacred spot conferred upon him passions impelled him. It was possible that one of the the order of the Holy Sepulchre. He returned to Saxinconsistencies of Henry VIII. might prove favourable ony in the following summer. In 1502 he founded the to the Reformation. University of Wittemberg, which was destined to be the nursery of the Reformation.

Scotland was then torn by factions. A king five years old, a queen regent, ambitious nobles, an influ- When the light dawned, he did not commit himself ential clergy, harassed this courageous nation on all on either side, but stood by to secure it. No man was sides. It was, however, destined to hold a distinguish-fitter for this office; he possessed the general esteem, ed place among the nations which should receive the and was in the intimate confidence of the emperor. Reformation. He even acted for him in his absence. His wisdom consisted not in the skilful working of deep laid policy, but in an enlightened and prescient prudence, of which the first law was never for the sake of any self-interest to infringe the rules of honour and religion.

The three northern kingdoms, Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, were united under one government. These rude and warlike people seemed likely to have little sympathy with the doctrine of love and peace. Yet, from the very energy of their character, they were At the same time he felt in his heart the power of perhaps better disposed to receive the spirit of the the word of God. One day, when the vicar-general, evangelical doctrine than the southern nations. But Staupitz, was in his company, the conversation turned these descendants of warriors and pirates brought per-on public declaimers: "All sermons," said the elector, haps too warlike a spirit to the support of the Protestant" made up of mere subtleties and human traditions, are cause; in subsequent times they defended it heroically marvellously cold, without nerve or power, since there by the sword. is no subtlety we can advance that may not by another subtlety be overturned. Holy Scripture alone is clothed with such power and majesty that, shaming us out of our rules of reasoning, it compels us to cry out, Never man spake as this.'" Staupitz assenting entirely to his opinion, the elector cordially extended his hand to him and said, "Promise me that you will always think thus."†

Russia, situate at the extremity of Europe, had but little connexion with other states; we may add that she belonged to the Greek Church. The reformation effected in the west had little or no influence upon the

east.

Poland seemed well prepared for a reformation. The vicinity of the Bohemian and Moravian Christians had Frederic was precisely the prince that was needed disposed it to receive that religious impulse which the for the cradle of the Reformation. Too much weakness neighbouring states of Germany were destined speedily on the part of those friendly to the work might have to impart to it. As early as the year 1500, the nobility allowed it to be crushed. Too much haste would have of Poland had demanded that the cup should be given to caused too early an explosion of the storm that from its the laity, appealing to the custom of the primitive origin gathered against it. Frederic was moderate, Church. The liberty which was enjoyed in the cities, but firm; he possessed that Christian grace which God and the independence of its nobles, made this country has in all times required from his worshippers; he a safe asylum for Christians who were persecuted in waited for God. He put in practice the wise counsel their own. The truth they brought with them was joy- of Gamaliel: "If this work be of man, it will come fully welcomed by numbers. It is the country which, to naught; if it be of God, we cannot overthrow it." in our times, has the fewest confessors of the Gospel."Things are come to such a pass," said the prince to The flame of reformation which had long flickered one of the most enlightened men of his time, Spengler in Bohemia, had almost been extinguished in blood. of Nuremberg, "that men can do no more: God alone Nevertheless some poor survivers, escaped from the can effect anything; therefore we must leave to his carnage, were still living to see the day that Huss had power those great events which are too hard for us.' predicted. We may well admire the wisdom of Providence in the choice of such a prince to guard the small beginnings of its work.

Hungary had been distracted by intestine wars, under the rule of princes without ability or experience, who, in the result, made the country a dependancy of Austria, by enrolling that powerful house among the heirs of the crown.

Such was the condition of Europe at the beginning of that sixteenth century, which was destined to produce so mighty a change in the great Christian family. But we have already observed, it was on the vast platform of Germany, and more particularly in Wittemberg, in the heart of the empire, that the grand drama of the Reformation was to commence.

Let us contemplate the actors in the prologue which ushered in, or contributed to, the work of which Luther was appointed to be, in God's hands, the hero.

Of all the electors of the empire, the most powerful at that time was Frederic of Saxony, surnamed the Wise. The influence he exercised, joined to his

Maximilian I., who wore the imperial crown from 1493 to 1519, may be reckoned among those who contributed to prepare the way of the Reforination. He afforded to the other princes the example of enthusiasm for literature and science. He was less attached than any other to the popes, and had even thoughts of seizing on the papacy. No one can say what it might have become in his hands; but we may be allowed to imagine from this circumstance, that a rival power to the pope, such as the Reformation, would not have reckoned the Emperor of Germany among its fiercest opponents.

Among even the princes of the Romish Church were found venerable men, whom sacred study and a sincere bus, potentia, liberalitate et magnificentia. (Cochlæus, Acta * Qui præ multis pollebat principibus aliis, auctoritate, opi. Lutheri, p. 3)

+ Luther, epp.

MEN OF LETTERS—REUCHLIN—HIS LABOURS—REUCHLIN IN ITALY.

piety had prepared for the divine work about to be wrought in the world. Christopher of Stadion, Bishop of Augsburg, knew and loved the truth; but he would have had to sacrifice all by a courageous confession of it. Laurentius de Biba, Bishop of Wurtzburg, a kind, pious, and wise man, and esteemed by the emperor and princes, was accustomed to speak openly against the corruption of the Church. But he died in 1519, too early to take part in the Reformation. John VI., Bishop of Meisser, was used to say, "As often as I read the Bible, I find there a different religion from that which is taught to us." John Thurzo, Bishop of Breslau, was called by Luther the best bishop of the age.* But he too died in 1520. William Briçonnet, Bishop of Meaux, contributed largely to introduce the Reformation in France. Who, indeed, can say to what extent the enlightened piety of these bishops, and of many others, was of use in preparing, each in his diocess, and beyond it, the great work of the Reformation?

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The son of the Bailiff of Pforzheim, in transports of joy, arrived, in company with the prince, at this most celebrated school of the west. He there found the Spartan Hermonymos, and John Weissel, surnamed the Light of the World, and he had now an opportunity of studying, under the most able masters, the Greek and Hebrew, of which there was at that time no professor in Germany, and which he himself was destined one day to restore in the land of the Reformation. The young and indigent German transcribed for rich students the verses of Homer and the orations Isocrates, and thus earned the means of prosecuting his studies and purchasing books.

The partisans of Rome began to be uneasy when they saw men of independent character searching into these ancient treasures. "The Romans make a wry face," said Reuchlin, "and clamorously assert that all such literary labours are contrary to Roman piety, since the Greeks are schismatics. Oh! what pains and patience are needed to restore wisdom and learning to Germany!"

But he heard other things from Weissel, which made a powerful impression on his mind. "The popes may be deceived," said Weissel. "All satisfaction made by men is blasphemy against Christ, who has completely reconciled and justified mankind. To God alone belongs the power of giving complete absoluBut it was reserved to men of lower station than tion. It is not necessary to confess our sins to the these princes or bishops, to become the chief instru-priests. There is no purgatory, unless it be God himments of God's providence in the work of preparation. self, who is a consuming fire, and purifies from all polIt was the scholars and the learned, then termed human-lution." ists, who exercised the greatest influence on their age. When Reuchlin was hardly twenty, he taught phiThere existed at that time open war between these losophy and Greek and Latin at Bâle, and it was then disciples of letters and the scholastic divines. The accounted almost a miracle that a German should speak latter beheld with alarm the great movements going on Greek. in the field of intelligence, and took up with the notion that immobility and ignorance would be the best safeguards of the Church. It was to save Rome that divines opposed the revival of letters; but by so doing they in reality contributed to her ruin, and Rome herself unconsciously co-operated in it. In an unguarded moment, under the pontificate of Leo X., she forsook her old friends, and embraced her youthful adversaries. The papacy formed with literature a union which seem- Soon after, Eberhard of Würtemburg invited ed likely to break the old alliance with the monastic Reuchlin to Tubingen, to adorn that rising univerorders. The popes did not at first perceive that what sity; and in 1487 he took him into Italy. Chalconthey had taken up as a toy was, in reality, a sword that dylas, Aurispa, John Picus of Mirandola, were his might destroy them. Thus in the last century we friends and companions at Florence. And at Rome, beheld princes who received at their courts a tone of when Eberhard had a solemn audience of the pope, politics and a philosophy which, if they had experienced surrounded by his cardinals, Reuchlin pronounced an their full effect, would have overturned their thrones. address in such pure and elegant Latin, that the asThe alliance of which we have spoken did not last sembly, who expected nothing of that kind from a barlong. Literature advanced, entirely regardless of that barous German, were in the utmost astonishment, and which might endanger the power of its patrons. The the pope exclaimed, "Certainly this man deserves to monks and the scholastic divines perceived that to for-be ranked with the best orators of France and Italy." sake the pope would be to abandon their own interests. Ten years after, Reuchlin was obliged to take reAnd the pope, notwithstanding the transcient patronage fuge at Heidelberg, at the court of the Elector Philip, which he bestowed upon the fine arts, adopted, when to escape the vengeance of the successor of Eberhard. it suited his interests, measures most opposed to the Philip, in conjunction with John of Dalberg, Bishop of spirit of the time. Worms, his friend and chancellor, endeavoured to diffuse the light that was beginning to dawn in all parts of Germany. Dalberg had formed a library, which was open to all the studious. Reuchlin made in this new field great efforts to enlighten and civilize the peo

The revival of letters presented at that time an animating spectacle. Let us sketch some lines of this picture, selecting such as have the closest connexion with the revival of the true faith.

In order that the truth might triumph, it was neces-ple. sary that the arms that were to achieve the victory should be taken from the arsenal in which for ages they had lain hidden. These weapons were the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testament. It was necessary to revive in Christendom the love and study of the sacred Greek and Hebrew texts. The man chosen by God for this work was John Reuchlin.

Being sent to Rome by the elector, in 1498, on an important mission, he employed the time and money he could command, either in improving himself in the Hebrew, under the instruction of the learned Jew, Abdias Sphorna, or in purchasing whatever Hebrew and Greek manuscripts he could meet with, intending to use them as torches, to diffuse in his own country the light that was beginning to appear.

A very sweet-toned child's voice had been noticed in the choir of the church of Pforzheim. It attracted An illustrious Greek, Argyropylos, was explaining the attention of the Margrave of Baden. It proved to be that of John Reuchlin, a young boy of pleasing manners and of a sprightly disposition, the son of an honest citizen of the place. The Margrave treated him with great favour, and made choice of him, in 1473, to accompany his son Frederic to the University of Paris. * Lutheri, epp i., p. 524.

in that metropolis, to a numerous auditory, the won derful progress his nation had formerly made in literature. The learned ambassador went with his suite to the room where the master was teaching, and on his entrance saluted him, and lamented the misery of Greece, then languishing under Turkish despotism. The astonished Greek asked the German, "Whence