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a German edition, entitled 'Europäisches Völkerrecht,' was published in 1821, and an enlarged edition of the French work, in 1831. Kluber was the author of numerous other works connected with international jurisprudence. George William Frederick Hegel, a native of Stuttgard (born 1770, died 1831), was the author of a number of works on philosophy and law, in one of which he most ably refutes the political theories of Kant. His 'Elements of Right, or the Basis of Natural Law and Political Science (Grundlinien des Rechts, oder Naturrecht und Staatswissenschaft in Grundrisse),' was published at Berlin in 1821. Henry Wheaton, an American author (born 1785, died 1848), published the first edition of his Elements of International Law' in 1836. This work was afterward greatly enlarged and improved. He had previously written on the 'Law of Captures,' and subsequently he published several important works on international jurisprudence. James Kent, another American writer (born 1763, died 1847), published, in 1826, the first volume of his 'Commentaries on American Law,' which briefly, but most. ably, discusses the fundamental principles of international law; the entire work was not completed till 1830. Joseph Story, one of the Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States (born 1779, died 1845), published, in 1834, his 'Commentaries on the Conflict of Laws,' in which he examines many important questions of international jurisprudence. William Oke Manning, an English author, published, in 1839, his excellent work, entitled Commentaries on the Law of Nations.' Andrès Bello, a native of Venezuela, published, in 1832, in Chili, a valuable and able elementary work, entitled 'Principios del Derecho Internacional.' B. W. Pfeiffer published, in 1819, his 'In wiefern sind Regierungshandlungen,' etc., and in 1823-1841, his 'Das Recht der Kriegseroberung,'

These works are valuable for containing learned discussions of certain questions not treated of in other modern works on public law. Charles de Martens published his Manuel Diplomatique,' in 1822, his Causes Célèbres du Droit des Gens,' in 1827, and his 'Guide Diplomatique,' in 1832. He is also the author of several other works. Count de Garden published his 'Traité Complet de Diplomatie' in 1833. J. M. Pardessus commenced, in 1828, the publication of his 'Collection de Lois Maritimes,' but the entire work was

not completed till 1845. The first of two volumes was subsequently published separately, under the title of Us et Coutumes de la Mer.' P. S. Boulay-Paty published, in 1821-3, his 'Cours de Droit Commercial Maritime.' Count d'Hauterive and Baron de Cussy began, in 1834, the publication of their 'Recueil des Traités de Commerce.' Professor de Felice published, in 1830, his 'Leçons de Droit de la Nature et des Gens.' Professor Cotelle published, in 1819, a volume, entitled Droit de la Nature et des Gens.' Frederick Salfield published, in 1833, his 'Handbuch des positiven Völkerrechts,' an elementary work of considerable merit. The posthumous work of G. de Wal, entitled 'Inleidning tot de Wetenschap van het Europesche Volkeregt,' was published in 1835. M. Shafner's work, on the Development of Private International Law (Entwicklung des Internationalen Privatrechts),' was published in 1841. H. Ahrens's Cours de Droit Naturel' was first published in 1840; it soon passed through several editions, and was translated into various languages. M. S. F. Schoel published, in 1817 and 1818, his 'Histoire Abrégée des Traités de Paix.' Laget de Podio published, in 1826, his 'Juridiction des Consuls de France.' Borel published, in 1831, an enlarged edition of his work, entitled 'De l'Origine et des Fonctions des Consuls,' which originally appeared in Russia in 1807. The fourth volume of Alexander de Miltitz's 'Manuel des Consuls' appeared in 1839; the death of the author prevented the completion of the work. José Ribiera dos Santos and José Feliciano de Castilho-Barreto published, in 1839, a valuable work in two volumes, entitled 'Traité du Consulat.' Schmolz published, at Berlin, in 1817, his Europäisches Völkerrecht.' Gagern published, at Leipsic, in 1840, a work, entitled 'Critik des Völkerrechts.' Mirus published, at the same place, in 1838, his work, entitled 'Das Seerecht,' etc. Pitkin's Political and Civil History of the United States' was published in 1828.

Some of the historical writers of this period, in describing the political events of that which preceded, have discussed, incidentally, but with marked ability, some of the great questions of international law which grew out of the memorable wars following the French Revolution. Among the historical writings of this character, we may mention those of Baron Jomini, Mathieu Dumas, Foy, Thiers, Clausewitz,

Koch, Burlow, the Archduke Charles, Napier, Pelet, Guvion Saint-Cyr, Suchet, etc. The 'Mémoires' dictated by Napoleon at St. Helena to Gourgaud, Montholon and others, contain many striking remarks upon questions of international law which had been agitated in Europe during his reign.

Tenth Period-From the Treaty of Washington to the Civil War in the United States, 1842-1861.

§ 32. Among the most important events which occurred in Europe during this period, we may mention the revolution in France, which resulted in the expulsion of the younger house of the Bourbons, the restoration of the family of the Bonapartes, and the establishment of the imperial government of Napoleon III.; the abortive attempts at insurrection and revolution in Italy; the revolt in Hungary and the complete subjugation and absorption of that nation by Austria, through the assistance and armed intervention of Russia; the Crimean war between Russia on one side, and France, Great Britain, Sardinia and the Porte on the other; the Italian war between Austria and the allied forces of France, and Sardinia, and its appendix, the revolution and consolidation of Italy.

The wars waged by France in Africa, by Russia in Asia, by Great Britain in India, and by France and Great Britain in China and Syria, and by Spain against Morocco, do not properly come within the limits of this historical sketch. In America the most noted events were the revolt of Texas from Mexico and its voluntary annexation to the United States, and the war which resulted therefrom between the two republics. This war was terminated by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848, by which Mexico ceded to the United States a large portion of her territory. The restoration of peace was followed by the disbanding of large bodies of undisciplined troops, whose restless spirits, under the leadership of designing and unprincipled men, sought occupation in the lawless and disastrous expeditions, which were fitted out in different parts of the United States against Cuba, Lower California, Sonora and Nicaragua, generally known by the name of Filibuster Expeditions.1

1 Presidents' Messages and Congress Documents on the War with Mexico.

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§ 33. The more important questions of international law agitated during this period in America were, the right of jurisdiction over arms of the sea, arising out of the fishery question on the north-eastern coast adjacent to the British and American possessions; the rights of secession and annexation, as in the case of Texas; the rights of military occupation and of conquest, as in the case of Mexican ports and in territories possessed by, and ceded to, the United States; the rights of neutrality and of embassy, as in the case of British enlistments in the United States, and the consequent dismissal of the British minister and consuls; the character of unauthorised military expeditions by citizens of one State against those of another, when the governments of the two countries are at peace with each other, as in the case of the various filibuster expeditions upon Cuba, Mexico, and Central America; the proposed treaty for the protection of Cuba, and a guarantee by Great Britain, France, and the United States, of the status quo in the West Indies; thus introducing into America the principle of supervision, intervention, and balance of power, which now prevails in Europe; and the right of intervisitation of ships on the high seas in time of peace, for the suppression of the slave trade.1

§ 34. The questions of international law most agitated during this period in Europe were those respecting the right of armed intervention by one State in the internal affairs. of another, arising out of the revolutions in France, Italy, Germany and Hungary; the preservation of the balance of power in Europe, arising out of the encroachments of Russia upon the territory of the Ottoman Porte, and her manifest intention to enlarge her dominions by the absorption of Turkey; and similar encroachments of Austria in Italy; the law of sieges and blockades, the rights and duties of neutrals, the question of contraband, of neutral goods in enemy ships, and of enemy goods in neutral ships, arising out of the war of the Crimea between Russia and the Western Powers; the right of foreign enlistment in neutral territory and the rights and duties of embassy, as in the case of the British

1 Phillimore, On Int. Law, vol. i. pp. 465, 466; Marcy, Dip. Correspondence, Cong. Docs.; Everett, Letter of Dec. 1st, 1852, Cong. Docs.; President's Messages, Dec. 1856-57-58; Wheaton, Elem. Int. Law, pt. ii. ch. i. § 3, note.

minister and consuls in the United States, and of the British minister in Spain; the abolition of privateering, and the general policy of changing the conventional law of nations with respect to maritime capture, so as to conform to the modern rules of war upon land, as proposed by the United States to the maritime States of Europe; the rights of belligerents on land, and of conquest, as in the Italian war, and the cession to France and transfer to Sardinia of Lombardy; and the rights of other sovereign and dependent States of Italy, as connected with the right of intervention and the equilibrium of power in Europe.1

8 35. The present period has been exceedingly prolific in works which are professedly devoted to international law, or which treat of subjects connected with that branch of legal science. We will proceed to mention some of the more important of these publications.

Henry Wheaton published, in 1842, his essay on the 'Right of Visitation and Search,' and, in 1845, his 'History of the Law of Nations,' based on a memoir previously published in French, and submitted to the Institute of France. James Reddie published, in 1842, his 'Inquiries in International Law,' and, subsequently, his 'Researches, Historical and Critical, in Maritime International Law.' Archer Polson, in 1848, published a work entitled 'Principles of the Law of Nations.' Richard Wildman published, in 1849, a valuable work entitled 'Institutes of International Law.' John Westlake published, in 1858, a most excellent Treatise on Private International Law.' Wm. Beach Lawrence published, in 1855, an edition of Wheaton's 'Elements of International Law,' with introductory remarks and valuable notes, and in 1859, an essay or historical sketch of the right of Visitation and Search.' Robert Phillimore published, in 1847, a valuable little work, entitled 'The Laws of Domicile,' and in 1854-6, his learned and elaborate treatise, entitled 'Commentaries of International Law.' George Bowyer published, in 1854, his 'Commentaries on Universal Public Law,' in which many questions of international law. are fully discussed. Of Continental works, we may mention the following: L. B. Hautefeuille published, in 1848, his valuable work, entitled 'Droits

1 Marcy, Letter to Count Sartiges, Cong. Doc.; Webster, Works of, vol. vi. pp. 488-506.

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