et Devoirs des Nations Neutres en temps de Guerre Maritime.' A second and enlarged edition was published in 1858. Theodore Ortolan published, in 1845, Règles Internationales et Diplomatie de la Mer.' Eugène Ortolan published, in 1845, 'Des Moyens d'acquérir le Domaine International.' Foelix published, in 1843, his 'Traité du Droit International Privé.' G. Massé published, in 1844, his work, entitled 'Le Droit Commercial,' etc. A. de Pistoye and Charles Duverdy published, in 1855, their elaborate work, entitled Traité des Prises Maritimes.' Baron Ferdinand de Cussy published his 'Dictionnaire du Diplomate et du Consul,' in 1846; his 'Réglements Consulaires,' in 1851; his 'Phases et Causes Célèbres du Droit Maritime des Nations,' in 1856; and his 'Précis Historique des Evénements Politiques,' in 1859. Louis Pouget published, in 1858, 'Principes de Droit Maritime;' and the same year, Aldrick Caumont published his 'Dictionnaire Universel du Droit Maritime.' J. Bedarride published his 'Droit Commercial' in 1859. Two Spanish works, published during this period, are worthy of particular notice. The posthumous work of José Maria de Pando, who died in 1840, was published at Madrid, in 1843, under the title of 'Elementos del Derecho Internacional,' and, in 1849, Don Antonio Riquelme published his 'Elementos del Derecho Publico Internacional.' Silvestre Pinheiro-Ferreira, a Portuguese by birth, published, in 1845, his 'Cours du Droit Public.' He was the author of numerous articles in the French Revue Etrangère de Législation, and of notes on Vattel and Martens. The various memoirs of Professor Putter, of the University of Griveswalde, on questions of international law, were collected and published in 1843, under the title of 'Beiträge zur Völkerrechts-Geschichte und Wissenschaft.' A. W. Heffter published, in 1844, a work on international law, entitled 'Das Europäische Völkerrecht der Gegenwart.' An enlarged edition, translated by Jules Bergson, with notes, was published, in Paris, in 1859, under the title of 'Le Droit International Public de l'Europe.' Mensch published, in 1846, his Manuel pratique du Consulat,' and Moreuil, in 1850, his 'Manuel des Agents Consulaires.' Alexander de Clercq published, in 1851, a 'Guide pratique du Consulat,' which was followed by a Formulaire des Chancelleries.' Count de Garden commenced, in 1850, the publication of his

voluminous work, entitled 'Histoire Générale des Traités de Paix.' C. Von Kalternborn published, in 1847, a work entitled Critik des Völkerrechts,' and, in 1848, another, entitled 'Zur Geschichte des Natur- und Völkerrechts.' A. Villefort's pamphlet on 'Priviléges Diplomatiques,' published in 1858, is a work of much merit. A French edition of the Italian work of Ferdinand Lucchesi-Palli was published in 1842, under the title of 'Principes du Droit Public Maritime.' H. B. Oppenheim published, at Frankfort, in 1845, a manual on international law, entitled 'System des Völkerrechts.' Mirus published, in 1847, a work, entitled 'Das Europ. Gesandtschaftsrecht.' Gardner published, in 1860, his 'Institutes of International Law.' Other authors of treatises on particular branches of jurisprudence,—as insurance, commercial and mercantile law, -have incidentally discussed certain questions of an international character with learning and ability. Among these we may mention 'The Law and Practice of Maritime Insurance,' by John Duer, published in 1846, which contains a very complete summary of the decisions of the prize-courts of England and America on maritime captures. Of the judicial opinions collected and discussed in Mr. Duer's work, there are none of more marked ability than those delivered by Chief Justice Marshall and Mr. Justice Story in the Supreme and Circuit Courts of the United States. The decisions of these two eminent judges on questions of international law, and more particularly of maritime capture, rank, at least, next to those of Sir Wm. Scott, and on some points, they are now regarded as the better authority.

§ 36. Some of the numerous and important questions of international law, which have been agitated within the last twenty years, are treated of in the text-books to which we have just referred; but many of them are scarcely alluded to, and some are not mentioned at all. We find some able and valuable discussions of various events of the Crimean and Italian wars, and of the questions to which they have given rise,

1 It is proper to remark that, with regard to the dates of the births, deaths, and publications of many of the authors referred to in the foregoing pages, there are numerous conflicting statements in biographical and bibliographical dictionaries. The author has followed those which he believed the best authority, although, in a few cases, there was some cause to doubt their correctness.

in the diplomatic correspondence and parliamentary debates of the same period. In fact, international law has been very

1 The author here refers to the war, waged by Great Britain, France, and Turkey against Russia, in 1854-56, and to the wars of 1860 resulting in the unification of Italy. The former war was signalised-by the bombardment of Odessa for an insult offered to a British flag of truce; the victory of the allies at Alma; the siege of Balaklava, and the battle of that name, rendered famous by the charge of the British light cavalry, an act rather renowned for its courage than for its strategy; the battle gained by the allies at Inkermann; the defective arrangements of the British commissariat department, so badly organised that the soldiers were suffering the greatest privations, whilst food and fuel in abundance were within eight miles of them; finally the taking of the Mamelon, and of Sebastopol, from the Russian army.

Nor should the occurrence of 1857-58, so painful to the memory of thousands of Englishmen, be altogether passed by. As sudden as the Sicilian Vespers, and without warning, the terrible mutiny of the Sepoy regiments in India took place, in that period. Its true origin is difficult to be traced, but political intrigue, fanaticism of the Hindoos, and conspiracy among the Mussulmen, are known concurrent causes. The mutiny first evinced itself in the 19th Regiment, at Berhampore, with the alleged grievance that cartridges greased with animal matter had been served out to the soldiers. It is said that, had the commander-in-chief of the district displayed proper tact and energy, the mutiny might have been crushed in the bud. Be this as it may, it soon spread over the whole of Hindoostan, and the descendant of the Mogul was proclaimed Emperor of India. The attrocities committed against the Europeans, men, women, and children, were of the most frightful character, particularly at Meerut, Delhi, and Cawnpore; Nana Sahib, an adopted son of the ex-Peishwah of the Mahrattas, being one of the chief instigators of these barbarities. Fortunately the native armies of Madras and Bombay preserved their allegiance; suspected regiments were disarmed, and rebels were blown from the guns, in the presence of numbers of their accomplices. The skill and determination of the handful of European troops, assisted by those native regiments who remained faithful, finally subdued the insurrection.

In 1859, France declared war with Austria: Napoleon III. led his army in person, and gained the battles of Montebello and of Solferino. The victory of Magenta also graced the arms of the French, through the fault of the Austrian generals. The Austrian army retreated toward the famous Quadrangle, and on approaching thereto, peace was sought by France, and immediately accepted by Austria.

1860 saw the consolidation of Italy. Central Italy offered her allegiance to the King of Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel, and Florence became the new capital. The expedition of Garibaldi to Sicily, the surrender of Palermo, and capture of the whole island by his followers, are still fresh in the mind of the reader. His invasion of the Neapolitan dominions on the continent followed, ending with his victorious entry into Naples, while under the pretext of requiring the Pope to dismiss his foreign troops, the Sardinian took possession of Umbria and the Marches. The following year Victor Emmanuel was proclaimed King of Italy, a title acknowledged at once by England, afterwards by France, and by the other powers.

In 1861 the United States of America separated into two independent Republics. South Carolina, by a vote of a Convention, proclaimed her resumption of independence as a Sovereign State. Mr. Jefferson Davis,

much popularised in the present age; its principles are more generally acknowledged, and its authority is more frequently invoked by diplomatists, statesmen, and legislators. This is especially the case in the United States and Great Britain. In proof of the remark, we need only refer to the admirable State papers of the American Secretaries, Webster and Marcy, formerly Secretary of War, was elected the first President of the Confederate States, which first consisted of South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, and Texas. Other States subsequently joined them, to the number of five or six. Great Britain, in concert with France, determined to recognise both parties as belligerents, and not to regard the Confederate States as mere rebels (see post, vol. ii., p. 74, note), but in order to discourage privateers, all British ports were closed to prizes taken at sea. Upwards of 2,000 battles were fought. A remarkable incident of this war is the first sea-fight between iron-clad ships. The 'Virginia' (or 'Merrimac '), having been coated with iron rails by the Confederates, destroyed several wooden men-of-war of the enemy, and dispersed their transport ships. She was attacked by the Monitor,' an iron-clad vessel of the Federal Government, but the contest was undecided.

On May 26, 1865, the Confederate Government was entirely defeated, and the Civil War brought to a close. The British and French Governments rescinded their recognition of the Confederate States as belligerents. The United States Government granted an amnesty to the Confederates, all prisoners of whom were released on parole, after taking the oath of allegiance.

In 1864, Prussia and Austria invaded Schleswig-Holstein. Meanwhile a Conference was convened in London to attempt to settle a new line of demarcation, but without success. On June 25 the Prussians took possession of the Isle of Alsen, the Danes were defeated, and the Danish Government was subsequently required to surrender Schleswig-Holstein and Lauenberg to the allies. By the Convention of Gastein, Schleswig was to be governed by Prussia, and Holstein by Austria. A dispute soon arose between Prussia and Austria, terminating in the war of 1866, in which Prussia took possession of both Duchies without difficulty. In this war the Prussians were signally victorious, and finally defeated the Austrians in the battle of Sadowa, who, by the terms of peace, were obliged to relinquish all connexion with the German Confederation. Prussia, moreover, by this war annexed Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and HesseDarmstadt, assumed military and diplomatic power to the north of the Main, and raised herself to the dignity of a Great Power.

In 1870, the Franco-German war commenced, nominally on account of the refusal of the King of Prussia to make certain promises, with regard to the candidature of the hereditary Prince of Hohenzollern for the throne of Spain, but it was, in fact, a culmination of a mutual hatred and rivalry which had for several years past been growing up between France and Prussia. War was declared by France, and a small victory was at first gained by her arms at Saarbrück on August 2, but here the tide turned. At Weissembourg, on August 5, the French General Douay was killed and his troops routed; at Woerth, on August 6, after fighting most bravely under Marshal MacMahon, the French were put to flight, leaving an immense amount of ammunition and stores on the field. After this victory the German army, finding the passes of the Vosges completely undefended, marched without opposition on Paris. The victories of Saarbrück (August 6), Rezonville (August 16), Gravelotte (August 18), and Mouzon (August 30) followed, Nancy having submitted to the Crown

and to the more recent debates by Lyndhurst, Palmerston, Russell, and others in the British Parliament, on the rights and duties of neutrals, the law of allegiance and protection, the right of intervention, the maritime right of intervisitation in time of peace, etc. The diplomatic papers of Napoleon III., on Italian affairs, are most able productions.

Prince. On September 2, the battle of Sedan was fought, and Napoleon III., with 100,000 men, forced to surrender to the King of Prussia. The capitulation of Strasbourg, Toul, Orleans, Metz, Thionville, Phalsbourg, and Montmedy followed at short intervals. On November 10, the army of the Loire, under General d'Aurelle des Paladines, gained the sole French victory during the war, at Coulmiers. Rouen, Amiens, and Orleans were occupied by the German soldiers. In November some French troops, assisted by Pontifical Zouaves under General Charette, attempted to open the road to Paris, then invested by the enemy, but were defeated at Beaume-la-Rolande. In the following year the French were defeated at Le Mans, as also in various small engagements. Finally, on January 28, Paris capitulated to the German army. On February 26 the preliminaries of peace were signed at Versailles, by which (inter alia) Alsace, with the exception of Belfort, and Metz with part of Lorraine, were annexed to Germany, and France compelled to pay 200,000,000!, by instalments ranging over three years. The King of Prussia assumed the title of Emperor of Germany, shortly afterwards.

The details of the war between Turkey and Servia, 1876, and the events which have come to pass in the struggle between Russia and Turkey, are of too recent date to be mentioned, in detail, in this edition; some of the more important facts only will be mentioned in the following pages.