4. Transylvania.

Transylvania belonged to Hungary until the sixteenth century. When, after the battle of Mohacz, the Bohemian and Hungarian crowns fell to Austria, Transylvania was for 150 years governed by her own princes, at first of the house of Zapolya. All this time this country was a vassal state of the Turks; and being thus free from Roman Catholic persecution, the Protestant Churches had ample time for development. In 1687 Transylvania was conquered by Leopold I., who solemnly promised the continuance of religious liberty. Notwithstanding which, they were obliged to repel several attacks of the Papal party, until in 1791 the rights of the Protestants were fully secured by law. The constitution of the Lutheran and Reformed Churches exactly resemble that of the same Churches in Hungary' ('Free Church Almanac,' D. Grant, Edinburgh).

By Hussites from Bohemia, many noblemen in Poland had embraced the truth before the Reformation. In 1500 they had two hundred places of worship. This roused the spirit of persecution. Still Luther's writings were circulated, correcting the views and strengthening the hearts of those opposed to Popery. In 1525, several bishops favoured Reformed opinions, and

preachers were heard in Poland and Polish-Prussia. Worship could only be held in private till the middle of the sixteenth century. In 1550 the first Polish Synod was held, and the Book of Order of the Bohemian Brethren was adopted. John á Lasco, one of their eminent preachers, returned from London in 1556, and did much to advance the Reformation. The Protestants of Great Poland were chiefly Bohemian Brethren. Those in Little Poland embraced the views of the Swiss. Both united in 1555, but not with the Lutherans. In 1570, a convention was held at Sendomir, and a confederation of these parties was agreed to. This was founded on a compromise, the opposing views of the Lutherans and Reformed being expressed in vague and ambiguous language. This being held to be injurious to the interests of truth, was abrogated in the next century.

Socinians not gaining a permanent habitation elsewhere, went to Poland, and were mixed up with these Churches for a time. Having at length attacked the doctrine of Christ's divinity, in the Synod of Petrikow, in 1565, they were required to secede from the Reformed Church. They were called Pinczovians, from the town of Pinczow, where the leaders resided. All who dissented from Popery were, in the seventeenth century, persecuted and deprived of churches and schools. This appears to have arisen from the conduct of Socinian students at Racow, in demolishing a statue of Christ extended on the cross. By a decree of the Polish Diet, 1638, their school and church were shut; and in 1658, all Socinians were banished from Poland. In 1661, this edict was renewed, and carried rigorously out.

In 1616, the term 'presbyter' was applied in Poland to the assistants as well as to the pastors. The Book of Order declares that the 'presbyter and the bishop are one and the same thing.'

§ 5. RUSSIA AND GREECE.

The established religion in Russia is the Græco-Russianthe Orthodox Catholic faith. It separated from the See of Rome in 1054; all persons being authorized to read the Bible. The celibacy of the clergy is so strictly prohibited, that no priest can perform any spiritual function before he is married, nor after he

becomes a widower. All religions, except that of the Jews, may be freely professed; but no member of the Russo-Greek Church is permitted to renounce his creed. Children of mixed marriages are brought up in the State faith. Roman Catholics are most numerous in the Polish provinces, Lutherans in the Baltic, and Mohammedans in Southern Russia. There are 4,132,000 Protestants-3,837,000 in Russia in the East, 285,000 in Poland, 6000 in the Caucasian provinces, and 4000 in Siberia.

In Greece, the entire population, with the exception of 24,000 Roman Catholics, belong to the Orthodox Greek Church. By the constitution of 1864, this was declared to be the religion of the State, but complete toleration is granted to all parties. The Greek Church agrees chiefly with the Roman Catholic in the worship of saints, and in the doctrine of transubstantiation.

§ 6. DENMARK, SWEDEN, AND NORWAY.

The Swedes received the gospel through Olaus Petri, a disciple of Luther. After Christiern, King of Denmark, was expelled, Gustavus Vasa was elevated to the throne. This heroic prince warmly seconded the efforts of Petri, 1523. Learned men were introduced. The people were instructed in the knowledge of the Scriptures in their own tongue. After discussions with and opposition from the bishops, the Reformed Religion, by the sanction of the national representatives, was established, and Popery overthrown.

In Denmark, Christiern, who was a cruel monarch, endeavoured by the Reformation only to increase his personal aggrandisement. He wished to possess himself of the powers of the bishops. By conspiracy, in 1523, he was deposed and banished, and Frederick Duke of Holstein enthroned. Preaching being encouraged, and liberty of conscience granted, the greater portion of the Danes abandoned Popery. Christian III. completed their deliverance. Bishops were stripped of their power, and religion was properly settled by the aid of John Bugenhagen. Jealousy existing between the nobles and bishops, the latter were humbled. A large sum of money, collected by Arcimbold by the sale of indulgences, was laid hold of, 1536. A translation of the Scriptures into Danish was also effected.

The Churches in Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, are all of them Lutheran, and are thus, by their standards, essentially presbyterial. In Denmark and Norway, for a century after the Reformation, some of these elements appeared in practice. The superintendents were chosen by the ministers, and the latter by the people. A kind of kirk-session, or parochial council, and also national synods, were held, in which the ministers were represented. But the influence of the civil magistrate, strong from the beginning, was steadily growing upon the Church, till the King, in 1660, assuming to himself all the sovereignty, also absorbed in his own person all ecclesiastical power. This has been changed by the introduction of new political constitutions, in Norway, 1814, in Denmark, 1848, so far, that the parliaments of the two countries have got parts of the legislative power in Church matters. The Church forms one of the State departments, the King governing it through an ecclesiastical Minister. The ministers and congregations have no voice. The Denmark constitution promised by a special law to arrange Church matters, but that has not been given. Norway received no such promise. Meantime a party of growing influence is trying to secure to the Church greater independence of the State, and a more presbyterial government. The doctrines of these Churches exclude belief in apostolic succession, and are opposed to the claims of an order greatly different from that of the ordinary ministry. Although the official title of superintendents was long retained, yet the name bishop remained in popular use, and found its way at last into the official documents. Thus the government of these Churches, as in those of the first three centuries, is a progression from that of Presbytery onward to Episcopacy and Erastian control-'the results of a compromise,' writes an esteemed Scandinavian minister, 'between State and Church— struggling together within the bounds of both. This has been supreme since 1660.'

'In Sweden, the Church government,' he says, 'may in some sense be called Presbyterian, with the bishops as permanent leaders, and the king as the highest bishop. The Church has its "Privileges of the Clergy," a kind of concordat, renewed since 1650. Through their delegates, the clergy form one of the four

"States" which formerly composed the Swedish Parliament. By the constitution of the "Rigsdag" there are now but two chambers, the members being chosen by and among all citizens, clergymen included. Instead of their former political power, the Church has got a convocation or general assembly-"Kyrkomoto "—of its own, for deliberation in Church matters. Its sole decision appears to be limited to this, viz., that no new law or alteration of the "Privileges of the Clergy," can be made by the King or the Rigsdag, or both, without the consent of the Kyrkomoto. It is called every fifth year by the King, consisting of thirty ministers and thirty laymen, chosen by the Church, with the exception of the twelve "bishops," and the pastor primarius of Stockholm, that city being a diocese without a bishop. It met for the first time in 1868, and is regarded as a great boon, giving hope of the recovery from the Rigsdag of the Church power which it presently exercises. The Swedish Church has also "parochial councils," and a larger amount of self-government in the lower stages than the other two Churches.

'The most prominent theological school is that of "Grundtvizianere," in Denmark and Norway, holding that the words used at the consecration of the Supper are alone the Word of God; all else, although inspired, being simply edifying. These alone are the living life-giving words of the Lord. Bishop Grundtviz, now an old man, has exerted great influence in Denmark by earnest zeal, but the party has degenerated. Free congregations are allowed within the Church—that is, ministers are chosen who may not hold by the standards.

In all the Churches a Pietistic party has long existed-in Norway since the beginning of the century. They are called "Hanges Venner," Friends of Hanges. This was a peasant who was moved to proclaim the truth, and who was imprisoned for ten years, arousing very many. Since then important educational and missionary efforts have been put forth. In Sweden and Denmark, the Pietists are called "Lásare," or Lasere, because of their diligent reading of the Scriptures. Retaining connection with the Churches, their influence for good has been immense. Separating from these, the Pietists have generally joined foreign Churches-Baptists Churches Baptists or Methodists. Numbers in Denmark have