ratists," as is indicated in their laws (Num. vi. 2, 3, 5, 6, 12). Farther, this "separation," or consecration, was required of the Levites devoted to the ministry (Lev. xxii. 2); abstinence from wine and intoxicating liquor being specially enjoined on those engaged in ministerial duties (Lev. x. 9). Yet more, this became a permanent obligation, suggested by moral conviction, in all subsequent Hebrew history (Prov. xxiii. 31; xxxi. 4; Hos. ix. 10-12; Ezek. xliv. 21; Zech. vii. 3; Dan. i. 5). No one can impartially trace this record, and not recognize that in the entire history of the Hebrew nation, beginning with the founder and legislator of the State, the whole weight of law, morality, and religion is against the use of intoxicating drinks.

WINES IN DESPOTIC AGES OF LUXURY IN WESTERN

ASIA.

A new era opened on Western Asia when, after the culmination of ancient civilization, despotism brought in luxury and degeneracy. During four centuries, from about B.C. 1,000 to B.C. 600, oppressive and luxurious monarchs reigned from the Nile to the Indus, alike in Egypt, Palestine, Assyria, Media and Persia. In Egypt the early influence of moral and religious conviction, leading to abstinence from intoxicating wine and the use of only the expressed juice of

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the grape, or unintoxicating wines, passed away. Plutarch intimates that a new era opened with Psammiticus, whose reign began about B.c. 664; his remark being that "the kings," not the priests, "began to drink wine from the time of Psammiticus." Prior to that era, as the tombs of Thebes reveal, luxury had been growing; women even at table being seen vomiting from excessive eating and drinking. This drinking, however, must have been of the sweet unfermented juice of the grape; since the persons vomiting are always sitting upright, supporting themselves, and showing no signs of being overcome by intoxicating liquors. From the days of Psammiticus, however, we may well believe that kings defied the laws of their early training; since this same result appears among the kings of Israel and the nations in the valleys of the Euphrates and Tigris. The testimony of Athenæus (Deipn.) confirms both this increase of luxury, and also the stern effort of Egyptian wise men to counteract it. The varied kinds of Egyptian wines enumerated by Pliny and others, show that the pampering of the palate had assumed a new and controlling influence; while the special mention of light wines is proof of the effort to resist the tendency to use intoxicating wines. Thus of one kind Athenæus says, that it is "not exciting to the head;" and of another kind, that it is so

mild and nutritive, that it is not injurious to those "afflicted with fever."

Contrary to

In Israel, too, a new era arose. the remonstrances of both Moses and Samuel, kings were chosen; who, among other evils, as had been foretold, introduced sensuality, luxury, and the resort to intoxicating beverages (Deut. xvii. 14, 17; 1 Sam. viii. 5, 13, 14). To this age, from David to Josiah, belong the writings of David, of Solomon, and of the prophets of Israel's degeneracy before the captivity in Babylon; which are most instructive as to the moral and religious law of wines.

The kinds of wine mentioned during this period are specially significant. The simple tirosh, or unintoxicating juice of the grape, is only twice mentioned: David referring (Psal. iv. 7) to the products "corn and tirosh," and Solomon (Prov. iii. 10) comparing to "tirosh" the simple and sweet fruits of virtue and piety. On the other hand, two contrasts appear. First, the artificial product shekar, strong drink, is frequently met, and the effects of yayin, fermented wine, are constantly pictured and condemned. Second, as if it were a new effort to resist the downward tendency, two new preparations of grape-juice are introduced. The first of these, asis, is evidently a carefully-prepared must, or unfermented wine; and the second, eshîshah, is

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the juice of the grape boiled down to a solid. cake. Each of these deserves notice.

The verb shakar, to drink to intoxication, and the noun shekar, strong drink, are met in the writings of David and of Solomon the kings, and of Isaiah, Micah, and Nahum, the prophets. In the Psalm prophesying the insults heaped upon the Messiah on the cross, David foretells that He would have occasion to exclaim (Psalm lxix. 12), “I was the song of the drunkards." In his song, Solomon represents his beloved as picturing the intoxication of impure sensual affection seen in her rivals and abusers (i. 6; v. 7); and she contrasts this false with true spiritual love by a comparison of simple country diet with court luxuries. Her language is, as Fuerst's definitions indicate: "I have eaten my sweet-shrubs with grape-syrup (debsh); I have drunk my wine (yayin) with milk;" then, in irony adding: Eat, companions, swallow down; drink to intoxication, cousins." In his Proverbs Solomon declares (xx. 1)," Strong drink is raging," and he makes Lemuel's mother say (xxxi. 4, 6), "It is not for princes to drink strong drink

give

strong drink to him that is ready to perish.' Isaiah, the evangelic prophet, utters woes on them that "follow," and on them that "mingle strong drink" (v. 11, 22); he declares it "bitter" (xxiv. 9); he pictures those " out of the way" and

"staggering from strong drink" (xxviii. 7; xxix. 9); he threatens men who "shall be filled with strong drink as with their own blood" (xlix. 26); who shall be "afflicted through intoxication" (li. 21); who invite others, saying "we will fill ourselves with strong drink" (lvi. 12); and who, rejecting the Redeemer, coming in "garments dyed" with his own blood, will hear the curse: "I will make them drunk in my fury." Finally, Micah (ii. 11), the echo of Isaiah, pictures the prophet of falsehood and "lies" as prophesying under the influence "of wine and strong drink."

The destroying effects of yayin, wine, in this age, are also vividly portrayed. David, as a shepherd-boy, is sent by his father with the shepherd's fare of bread, parched corn and cheese (1 Sam. xvii. 17, 18), to the army; but in his later experience he meets Abigail, who brings to him "two bottles of wine," and has a husband who drinks wine to beastly intoxication (1 Sam. xxv. 18, 37); while in his later life Ziba in false friendship brings to David bread, raisins, summer fruit and "a bottle of wine that such as be faint in the wilderness might drink” (2 Sam. xvi. I, 2). Often in David's reign wine is mentioned with corn as a product of the field (1 Chron. ix. 29; xii. 40); but David's own three allusions to it are pictures such as many a father in our modern society learns to appreciate. Absalom,