nise the authority of the government so far as hardly to be persuaded by his friends to let them bail him out of prison when arrested in 1692 on suspicion of being involved in a treasonable plot. In 1696, along with two other clergymen, he outraged public feeling by solemnly pronouncing absolution, without any public confession, on the scaffold at Tyburn upon the heads of Friend and Parkyns just before their execution for a plot to murder the king. For this gross and public offence he was obliged to go into hiding, but though he was formally outlawed, no attempt was made to punish him. In 1697 he published his famous Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stage, which fell like a thunderbolt among the wits. The boldness of the onslaught can only be understood by remembering the greatness of the odds and the might of his antagonists. 'It is inspiriting,' says Macaulay, "to see how gallantly the solitary outlaw advances to attack enemies, formidable separately, and, it might have been thought, irresistible when com

bined, distributes his swashing blows right and left among Wycherley, Congreve, and Vanbrugh, treads the wretched D'Urfey down in the dirt beneath his feet, and strikes with all his strength full at the towering crest of Dryden.' Collier's argument carried the country with it, and brought back the English drama to good morals and good sense. That excessive stage-profligacy which was a mere reaction against the rigidity of Puritanism, and had far outrun the parallel laxity of contemporary social morals, at once disappeared, and the theatre in England again became a mirror in which nature and truth were reflected without distortion. But it was not without a struggle that the wits consented to be worsted. Congreve and Vanbrugh, with many of the smaller fry, answered angrily but weakly, and were crushed anew by the redoubtable nonjuror, who was complete master of the rhetoric of honest indignation. Contest,' says Dr Johnson, was his delight; he was not to be frighted from his purpose or his prey.' The great Dryden stood apart at first, but at length in the preface to his Fables (1700) acknowledged with a noble honesty that he had been justly reproved. 'I shall say the less of Mr Collier,' he says, 'because in many things he has taxed me justly and I have pleaded guilty to all thoughts and expressions of mine which can be truly argued of obscenity, profaneness, or immorality, and retract them. If he be my enemy, let him triumph; if he be my friend, as I have given him no personal occasion to be otherwise, he will be glad of my repentance. It becomes me not to draw my pen in the defence of a bad cause, when I have so often drawn it for a good one.' But Dryden complained, and fairly, that his antagonist had often perverted his meaning, that he was too much given to horse-play in his raillery, and came to battle like a dictator from the plough.' Spite, however, of all its pedantry and overstatement of the case, and its faults of taste and of relative proportion in charges made with equal indignation, the Short View was a noble protest against evil, and was as effective as it deserved to be.

Collier continued to preach to a congregation of Nonjurors (q.v.), and was consecrated bishop in 1713. A great controversy soon rent the nonjuring community on the lawfulness of returning to certain 'usages' allowed in the communion-office of the first prayer-book of Edward VI., which Collier's party preferred to the revision of 1552. Collier at length pronounced these usages essential, and not unnaturally laid himself open to a charge of holding Romish views. He masqueraded as 'Jeremias, Primus Anglo-Britannia Episcopus' in some abortive attempts to form a union with the Eastern

Church. His last years were racked by the torments of the stone, from which he found relief in death, April 26, 1726. Of his forty-two books and pamphlets, those on the stage alone are still read. The fifth edition of his famous treatise (1730) contains all the successive pamphlets which fortified the first. His largest works were the Great Historical, Geographical, Genealogical, and Poetical Dictionary (4 vols. folio, 1701-21), and An Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain the end of the Reign of Charles II. (2 vols. folio, 1708-14; new ed. by T. Lathbury, with Life, 9 vols. 1852).

Collier, JOHN, known under the pseudonym of 'Tim Bobbin,' was the son of the curate of Stretford, near Manchester, and from 1739 to his death in 1786 was master of a school at Milnrow, near

Rochdale.

He early wrote verse and painted Blackbird, appeared in 1739, and his View of the grotesque pictures; his rhyming satire, The Lancashire Dialect (in humorous dialogue), his most notable production, in 1775. It has been often reprinted. Other works are Truth in a Mask, The Fortune-teller, and The Human Passions (120 engravings, with verse descriptions).

Collier, JOHN PAYNE, Shakespearian critic and commentator, was born in London, 11th January 1789, son of an unprosperous merchant who had succeeded as a reporter and journalist. His parents were friends of Lamb, Hazlitt, Coleridge, and Wordsworth. The boy passed some years at Leeds, and early began to write. Still a boy, he became parliamentary reporter for the Times, next for the Morning Chronicle, and wrote regularly for the latter down to 1847. His call to the bar was delayed till 1829, probably through the odium he incurred by a foolish volume of satirical verse. His real literary career commenced in 1820 with the publication of The Poetical Decameron. From 1825 to 1827 he issued a new edition of Dodsley's Old Plays, and in 1831 his best work, a History of English Dramatic Poetry to the Time of Shakespeare, and Annals of the Stage to the Restoration. This opened up to him the libraries of Lord Francis Gower, afterwards Lord Egerton and Earl of Ellesmere, and of the Duke of Devonshire, the latter appointing him his librarian. From 1835 to 1839 Collier published his New Facts regarding the life and works of Shakespeare, followed by an edition of Shakespeare (8 vols. 1842-44), and supplemented by Shakespeare's Library (2 vols. 1844), a reprint of the histories, novels, and early dramas on which Shakespeare founded his plays. He was one of the leading members of the Camden Society from its foundation in 1838, and he edited for its issues Bale's Kynge Johan (1838), the Egerton Papers (1840), and the Trevelyan Papers (1857 and 1863). He contributed ten publications (1840-44) to the Percy Society, and twenty-one (1841-51) to the Shakespeare Society, of which he was long director. In 1852 he announced his discovery of an extensive series of marginal annotations in a 17th-century hand on a copy of the second Shakespeare folio (1631-32) he had bought-the famous Perkins folio, so called from a name inscribed on the cover. Late in the same year he published these to the world as Notes and Emendations to the Plays of Shakespeare, and calmly lifted them into the text in his 1853 edition of Shakespeare, and again in his annotated six-volume Shakespeare in 1858. The emendations caused a great commotion in the literary world, and were furiously applauded or furiously assailed. The best Shakespearian students were more or less sceptical, but C. W. Singer and E. A. Brae were the first to express openly an unfavourable opinion. The latter also attacked Collier's alleged discovery of his suspiciously long

COLLIERS AND SALTERS

lost notes of Coleridge's lectures on Shakespeare and Milton, delivered in 1811. Collier, in the course of abortive proceedings for libel against Brae's publisher, swore to the truth of his statements respecting both the Perkins folio and his Coleridge notes. Meantime he had been judicious enough to keep his folio from the eyes of experts, but at length in 1859, the Duke of Devonshire, to whose predecessor Collier had given it in 1853, sent it, at Sir F. Madden's request, to the British Museum for examination. The result was a conclusive proof, by Mr N. Hamilton in letters to the Times, and more completely in his Inquiry (1860), that the boasted 17th-century emendations were entirely recent fabrications. Still further forgeries were later brought to light in Mr Warner's Catalogue of MSS. at Dulwich College (1883), from which Collier had prepared three publications for the Shakespeare Society. Collier replied angrily in the Times, in his long Reply (1860), the disingenuousness of which injured his reputation as much as the facts of his antagonist. The controversy widened, but every competent writer concluded against Collier, the only question that remained uncertain being whether he himself was merely a dupe or more. Unhappily for the name of a sound scholar ruined by one fatal weakness, this too was answered by the discovery after his death of some manipulated books in his own library. In 1847 Collier was named secretary to the Royal Commission on the British Museum, and in 1850 he removed to Maidenhead, where he died 17th September 1883. He had enjoyed since October 1850 a civil list pension of £100. His later books were A Booke of Roxburghe Ballads (1847), Extracts from the Registers of the Stationers' Company (2 vols. 1848-49), The Dramatic Works of Thomas Heywood (1850-51), a good edition of Spenser (5 vols. 1862), a series of small reprints of rare 18th and 17th century pieces in prose and verse (1863-71), Bibliographical and Critical Account of the Rarest Books in the English Language (1865), and An Old Man's Diary Forty Years Ago (1871-72). See Dr Ingleby's Complete View of the Shakspere Controversy (1861), which contains a bibliography of the books.

Colliers and Salters. See SERFDOM. Collimator, a subsidiary telescope used to detect or correct errors in collimation (i.e. in directing the sight to a fixed object) when adjusting for transit observations. When the vertical thread in the field of view exactly coincides with the vertical axis of a telescope, the instrument is collimated vertically; and when the horizontal spider's thread just covers the horizontal axis, the instrument is correct in horizontal collimation. If

the cross-wires in one coincide perfectly with those of the other in all possible positions. Then replacing the 'transit circle,' it is examined and tested by reference, first to one, and then the other collimator, the verification requiring that it be turned through 180° till the threads in the three fields of view absolutely coincide, and the collimation is pronounced perfect.

Practical astronomers set great value on the collimator (in the arrangement just described) for having entirely superseded the 'meridian niark.' By Rittenhouse's principle a telescope can become its own collimator, especially in determining the nadir point. When the axis is vertical over a vessel containing mercury, the telescope will be collimated when the cross-wires are brought to exact coincidence with their image seen in the mercury. See TELESCOPE.

Collingwood, a town of Ontario, on the south shore of Georgian Bay, where it connects the railways with the Huron lake steamers. It has several factories, ship-yards, and grain-elevators, and a considerable trade in lumber and grain. Pop. (1871) 2829; (1891) 4940.

Collingwood, CUTHBERT, LORD, admiral, was born at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 26th September 1750. Sent to sea as a volunteer at the age of eleven, his life thenceforth, with the exception of some half-dozen years, was spent wholly on board ship. From 1778 his career was closely connected with that of Nelson, whom he followed up the ladder of promotion step by step, until Nelson's death left the topmost round vacant for himself. Among the great naval victories in which CollingHowe off Brest in 1794; of Lord Jervis off Cape wood bore a prominent part, were those of Lord St Vincent in 1797; and of Trafalgar in 1805, where he held the second command. In the lastmand, the first to break through the line of the comnamed engagement, his ship was, by Nelson's combined French and Spanish fleets; and after Nelson had received his death-wound, he assumed the A peerage was his reward for his battle. gallant conduct in this After several years' uneventful service in the Mediterranean, he died at sea, March 7, 1810, but was buried beside Nelson, in St Paul's. Collingwood was not the stuff great tacticians are made of, and his talents as a commander-in-chief were at best but mediocre; but he was a brave and capable seaman, earnest and pious as a man, firm and mild as an officer, and admirable as a second in command. See his Correspondence and Life, by his son-in-law (1828).

chief direction.

His

Collins, ANTHONY, deist, was born 21st June 1676, at Heston, near Hounslow, in Middlesex, and was the son of a country gentleman. He studied at Eton and at King's College, Cambridge, and became the disciple and friend of John Locke. In 1707 he published his Essay concerning the Use of Human Reason; and in 1709, his Priestcraft in Perfection. The controversy excited by this last work induced Collins to write his Historical and Critical Essay on the Thirty-nine Articles. next work was a Vindication of the Divine Attributes, in reply to King, Archbishop of Dublin, who asserted the compatibility of Divine Predestination and Human Freedom. Collins was a philosophical Necessitarian, and afterwards advocated his opinions more fully in his Philosophical Inquiry concerning Liberty and Necessity (1715). In 1711 he visited Holland, where he made the friendship of Le Clerc and other eminent literati. In 1713 he published his Discourse on Free-thinking, the best known, and the most important of all his works; to it Bentley made reply in his famous Remarks. In 1713 Collins made a second visit to

Holland; and in 1718 he was made treasurer for the county of Essex. In 1724 appeared his Grounds and Reasons of the Christian Religion. The contention that no fair interpretation of the Old Testament prophecies will secure a correspondence between them and their alleged fulfilment in the New Testament, created a violent controversy, and called forth no fewer than thirty-five replies. Two years later he defended himself in his Scheme of Literal Prophecy; and in 1727 he published his last work, the Scheme of Literal Prophecy Considered. Collins died 13th December 1729.

Collins, MORTIMER, a versatile writer, was born the son of a solicitor at Plymouth, June 29, 1827. He was educated at private schools, and held for some years a mathematical mastership in Guernsey, which he resigned in 1856 to devote himself entirely to literature. He settled at Knowl Hill in Berkshire, and kept up an incessant activity in the varied forms of articles on current politics, novels, and playful verses until his death, 28th July 1876. His physical was equal to his mental vigour he was tall and remarkably strong, an athlete, a lover of dogs, flowers, and outdoor-life. His old-world Toryism and hatred of irreverence and irreligion, his humour, his wonderful facility in extemporising clever verse, his chessplaying, not to say his mathematics, made him a delightful companion, and endeared him to such friends as R. H. Horne, Frederick Locker, Edmund Yates, and R. D. Blackmore. His volumes of verse were Summer Songs (1860), Idyls and Rhymes (1865), and The Inn of Strange Meetings (1871). Of his numerous novels the chief are Sweet Anne Page (1868); The Marquis and Merchant (1871); Two Plunges for a Pearl (1872); Mr Carington, by 'Robert Turner Cotton' (1873); Transmigration (1874); From Midnight to Midnight (1875); and 4 Fight with Fortune (1876). His second wife, who died March 17, 1885, collaborated with him in Frances (1874), Sweet and Twenty (1875), and in two novels published posthumously, The Village Comedy (1876) and You Play me False (1878); and wrote alone A Broken Lily (1882). One of his most popular books was The Secret of Long Life (1871), a collection of essays at first published anonymously. The pious affection of his friends kept his memory green by editing from his papers Pen Sketches by a Vanished Hand, by Tom Taylor, (1879); Attic Salt, a selection of epigrammatic sayings from all his books, by F. Kerslake (1880); and Thoughts in My Garden, by E. Yates (1882). See his wife's account of his Life (1877), and his Select Poetical Works (1886).

Collins, WILLIAM, a distinguished English poet, was born at Chichester, 25th December 1721. His father was a hatter in that town, of which he was several times mayor. Collins received the rudiments of his education at the prebendal school of his native town. At the age of twelve he was sent to Winchester School, where he remained seven years. While there he wrote his Oriental Eclogues, which in his own day, and for a considerable period afterwards, were the most popular of his productions. He was himself convinced that this preference was misplaced, and the world has long since come round to his opinion. In 1741 he proceeded to Oxford, where he was distinguished by 'his genius and indolence. Having taken the degree of Bachelor of Arts in 1743, he shortly after wards left the university for reasons which are not accurately known. His private means being but slender, he obtained the title to a curacy, but was dissuaded from entering the church. As his only other alternative, he took up his residence in London, and sought to make a living by literature, a profession for which he was utterly unfitted by his desultory

ways and uncertain health. He now fell into what are vaguely described as 'irregular habits,' and was at times reduced to the greatest straits. On one occasion Dr Johnson rescued him from the hands of bailiffs by obtaining an advance from a bookseller on the promise of Collins to translate the Poetics of Aristotle. It was during this period, however, that he wrote his Odes, upon which his fame as a poet now rests. They attracted no notice at the time of their publication, and they were little valued even by such contemporaries as Gray and Dr Johnson. By the death of an uncle in 1749, Collins inherited the sum of £2000, which enabled him to retire to Chichester, and apparently to pursue a regular course of study. It was about this time that he met Home, the author of Douglas, to whom he addressed his Ode on the Popular Superstitions of the Highlands of Scotland, a poem in which, according to Mr Russell Lowell, the whole Romantic School is foreshadowed.' The ode Society of Edinburgh (1788). Before 1753, Collins was first published in the Transactions of the Royal felt the approaches of the mental disease to which he finally succumbed, and sought relief in a visit to France. On his return he gradually became worse, and in 1753 his reason completely gave way. He lived for six years longer in this state, though with lucid intervals. He died on 12th June 1759, so unknown to fame that no newspaper or magazine of the day has any notice of his death.

Collins, like Gray, holds a middle position beworth. In his maturer work he is almost completely tween the school of Pope and the school of Wordsfree from the so-called 'poetic diction' of the 18th century. He has not the passionate feeling for nature of later poets, but his feeling is at least real and not conventional. In respect of natural poetic gifts, Coleridge, and Mrs Browning, and other high authorities, place him above his contemporary, Gray. His choice of subjects, however, and his subtler modes of treatment, debar him from most highly finished ode is that To Evening, which the popularity of the author of the Elegy. His is unsurpassed for exquisiteness of tone and diction.

The ode entitled The Passions has merits of a differ

ent order, but evinces genius of even wider scope. The allegorical character of this ode and its companion pieces, To Liberty, To Mercy, and To Pity, Collins was capable of simplicity and pathos, howremoves them from direct human sympathy. That ever, is shown by his two most popular poems, On the Death of the Poet Thomson, and his lines beginning How sleep the brave.'

Collins, WILLIAM, R.A., landscape and figure painter, was born in London, September 8, 1788, of a Wicklow family. In 1807 he entered the Royal Academy as a student, and in the same year he exhibited two small landscapes. In 1812 his 'Sale of the Pet Lamb' was sold for 140 guineas, and from this time his pictures became popular. He exhibited 169 works, of which the best known are the Blackberry Gatherers' and 'The Birdcatchers' (1814), which gained his associateship; Scene on the Coast of Norfolk' (1815), now at Windsor; "The Fisherman's Departure' (1826), As Happy as a King' (1836), and 'Early Morning' (1846). Collins was elected R. A. in 1820. He studied and sketched in Italy in 1836-38, and in 1839 sent to the Academy several Italian subjects. Two pictures on sacred subjects (1840-41) were not particularly successful, and he wisely fell back on his green fields, his sea-beaches, his rustics, and his children at their games. A visit to the Shetland Islands in 1842 supplied materials for the illustrations of Scott's Pirate. Collins died in London, February 17, 1847. See his Life (1848) by his elder son, William Wilkie Collins. His second son, CHARLES ALLSTON COLLINS (1828-73), in early life painted

COLLINS

a number of pictures which are highly valued by collectors. In 1860 he married the younger daughter of Charles Dickens, and having already turned his attention to literature, produced The Eye-witness essays (1860), several novels, and other works, all exhibiting high promise.

Collins, WILLIAM WILKIE, novelist, elder son of William Collins, R. A., was born in London, 8th January 1824. He was educated partly at Highbury, but during 1836-39 was with his parents in Italy. After his return he spent four years in business, and then entered Lincoln's Inn; but gradually took to literature, the Life of his father (1848) being his earliest production. To it succeeded Antonina, or the Fall of Rome (1850); Basil (1852); Hide and Seek (1854); The Dead Secret (1857); The Woman in White (1860); No Name (1862); Armadale (1866); The Moonstone (1868); The New Magdalen (1873), &c.-in all, fully a score of novels and collections of novelettes. Several of them originally appeared in Household Words, All the Year Round, the Cornhill, and other periodicals. The best is The Woman in White, whose Count Fosco' is really a creation, and in which the author's almost invariable method of unfolding an intricate plot by narratives of the chief dramatis personce had not grown hackneyed. The Moonstone also is a strong story. Died September 23, 1889.

Collinson, PETER, botanist, was born at Hugal Hall, near Windermere, 14th January 1694, and became a manufacturer of hosiery, having a large business with the American colonies. He was early distinguished as a naturalist, studied entomology and botany, and in 1745 communicated to Franklin his first intimation of the recent advance of electrical science in Europe. But it was as a botanist he was most distinguished. He introduced the culture of numerous European plants into the United States, and introduced American trees into England. He died 11th August 1768. A genus of labiate plants was named Collinsonia

Collisions. See RAILWAYS, WRECK, RULE OF THE ROAD.

Collodion (Gr. kollao, 'I stick) is a solution of Gun-cotton (q.v.) or pyroxylin. Cotton itself is not soluble in alcohol or ether, but when treated, either in the form of cotton-wool, rags, or paper, with a mixture of five parts of strong nitric acid, and six of sulphuric acid, it is found that it can now be dissolved in ether, or in a mixture of ether and alcohol. To this modification the name pyroxylin is applied. There are many varieties of collodion divisible into surgical or medicated collodions, and photographic collodions. When one part of pyroxylin is dissolved in thirty-six parts of ether and twelve parts of alcohol, a thickish liquid is obtained, which evaporates rapidly, leaving a thin film of pyroxylin. As an application to wounds, where it is desired to keep the edges close together, this form of collodion is of use, owing to the contractility of the pyroxylin film which it leaves, but for general purposes a flexile or flexible collodion, as it is called, is desirable. This is produced by the addition of a little Canada balsam and castor-oil to the ordinary variety. Flexile collodion is largely used as a covering for abraded surfaces, as a remedy for burns, for sore nipples, &c., and it is also the basis for many medicated collodions, such as styptic collodion, cantharidal or blistering collodion, &c. Salicylated collodion is well known as a popular corn cure, and it is certainly most effectual in removing hard or soft corns with but slight inconvenience. It contains, in addition to salicylic acid, the active principle, a little extract of Indian hemp, which prevents the slight pain, which might otherwise prove

troublesome. Collodion plays a very important part in Photography (q.v.).

Colloid is a name applied by Graham to any soluble substance which, when exposed to Dialysis (q.v.), does not pass through the porous membrane. Starch, gum, albumen, and gelatin are examples of colloids; and the name is used in contradistinction to crystalloids.

Collot d'Herbois, JEAN MARIE, a French revolutionist of infamous notoriety, was born in Paris in 1750. Originally a provincial actor, he was attracted by the Revolution to Paris, where his impudence, his loud voice, and his Almanach du Père Gérard, secured him the public ear and his election for Paris to the National Convention. In 1793 he of the murderous Committee of Public Safety. became president of the Convention and a member Sent by Robespierre to Lyons in November of the same year, he took bloody revenge by guillotine and grapeshot on the inhabitants for having once hissed him off the stage in the theatre. His popularity at length exciting the envy of Robespierre, Collot d'Herbois for his own safety joined in the successful plot for the overthrow of Robespierre and his party in July 1794; but the reaction that followed this happy event proved fatal to himself. He was expelled from the Convention, and sentenced to deportation to Cayenne, where he died in misery that deep debauches could not stupefy, January 8, 1796.

Collusion, a deceitful agreement between two or more persons to defraud or prejudice a third person, or for some improper purpose. The most common cases of collusion occur in arrangements between bankrupts and their creditors, such as payment by anticipation to a favoured creditor on granting preferences by circuitous transactions or the approach of bankruptcy, arrangements for otherwise. Transactions in which there is evidence of collusion are reducible at common law, and many of the same nature are struck at by the. bankruptcy statutes. Collusion in judicial proceedings is an agreement between two persons that one should institute a suit against the other in order to obtain a judicial decision for some sinister purpose. The judgment so obtained is null. Collusion between petitioner and respondent in a suit for dissolution of marriage bars the suit.

salve or eye-wash. Collyrium is a term for various kinds of eye

In

Colman, GEORGE, commonly called 'the Elder,' a dramatic author and theatrical manager, was In 1760 his first born at Florence in 1732. dramatic piece, entitled Polly Honeycomb, was produced at Drury Lane with great success. Next year he gave to the world his comedy of The Jealous Wife, and in conjunction with Garrick, he wrote The Clandestine Marriage, which was played at Drury Lane, 20th February 1766. 1767 he became one of the purchasers of Covent Garden Theatre, and held the office of acting manager for seven years, after which period he sold his share. In 1777 he purchased the patent of the theatre in the Haymarket from Mr Foote. In 1785 he was attacked by paralysis, which caused a gradual decay of his mental powers, and he died in confinement on 14th August 1794. Colman was an industrious author; besides poetry and translations, he wrote and adapted upwards of thirty dramatic pieces.

Colman, GEORGE, 'the Younger,' son of the preceding, was born October 21, 1762. His bent lay in the same direction as his father's, during whose illness he acted as manager of the Haymarket Theatre; and on the death of the elder Colman, George III. transferred the patent to his

352

son.

COLMAN

Colman held, for a considerable time, the office of Examiner of Plays, to which he was appointed on 19th January 1824, and in which he behaved with great arrogance. In industry he rivalled his father, and he received large sums for his dramatic writings, some of which continue in possession of the stage. He was twice married, and died on the 17th October 1836. In 1830 he published a very imperfect autobiography, which he named Records of My Life; but his most notorious work is the preface to his play of The Iron Chest, in which he furiously attacked John Kemble. Colman, SAMUEL, American painter, born in Portland, Maine, in 1832, studied in Europe in 1860-62, was elected a member of the National Academy in 1862, and first president (1866-71) of the American Society of Painters in Watercolours. He has travelled extensively, and his pictures include scenes from Algeria, Germany, France, Italy, and Holland.

Colmar, the capital of the German district of Upper Alsace, stands on a plain near the Vosges, 42 miles SSW. of Strasburg by rail. Among the principal public buildings of Colmar are the church of St Martin (1263), the Dominican convent of Unterlinden, now a museum, the college, courthouse, and town-hall. Colmar is one of the chief seats of the cotton manufacture in Alsace. Other manufactures are paper, leather, ribbons, and hosiery. Colmar is an old place, having been raised to the rank of a free imperial city in 1226. It rapidly became one of the most prosperous towns in Upper Alsace. Fortified in 1552, its fortifications were razed in 1673 by Louis XIV. Pleasant boulevards now occupy their place. Colmar was formally ceded to France in 1697, but was recovered by Germany in 1871. Pop. (1875) 23,778; (1885) 26,537.

Colne, a town in the east of Lancashire, on a high ridge near the source of the Calder, a western branch of the Ribble, 26 miles N. of Manchester by

rail. It has manufactures of cotton calicoes and

mousselines-de-laine; and it was formerly a seat of the woollen industry. Slate and lime abound. Many Roman coins have been found at Colne. Pop. with Marsden (1881) 11,971; (1891) 16,774.

Colney Hatch, a village of Middlesex, 63 miles N. of London, with a great lunatic asylum, opened in 1851.

Colocasia. See Cocco.

Colocynth (Gr. kolokynthis), a well-known medicine, much used as a purgative, is the dried and powdered pulp of the Colocynth Gourd, Colo. quintida, Bitter Apple, or Bitter Cucumber, a globose fruit about the size of an orange, of a uniform yellow colour, with a smooth, thin, solid rind. The plant which produces it, Cucumis (or Citrul lus) Colocynthis, is nearly allied to the Cucumber (q.v.). It is found very widely distributed over the Old World, growing in immense quantities on the sand hillocks of Egypt and Nubia. It is also common in India, Portugal, Spain, and Japan. It has long been known for its purgative properties, and as early as the 11th century was in use in Britain. The main supplies of the drug are obtained from Mogador, Spain, and Syria. The fruit is gathered when it begins to turn yellow, peeled, and dried quickly either in a stove or in the sun. It is chiefly in the form of a dried extract that it is used in medicine. It owes its properties to a bitter principle called Colocynthine, which is more or less abundantly present in the fruits of many of the gourd family. It is a curious fact, but to which there are many analogies, that the seeds of the colocynth plant, produced in the midst of its medicinal pulp, are perfectly bland, and they even form an important article of food in the north

COLOGNE

of Africa.-The name False Colocynth is sometimes given to the Orange Gourd (Cucurbita aurantia), sometimes cultivated as an ornamental plant in our gardens, on account of its globose, deep-orange fruit. The pulp of the fruit possesses the properties of colocynth, but in a milder degree. Colocynth is generally administered in the form of pills, in which the extract is associated with aloes, scammony, and in some cases with calomel or with extract of hyoscyamus. In small doses, the colocynth acts as a safe and useful purgative; and when accompanied by hyoscyamus, the latter prevents much of the pain and griping which are attendant on the use of colocynth by itself. In large doses, colocynth is a poison. Colocynth enters into the composition of some moth powders, and renders them very efficacious.

Cologne (Ger. Köln), a city and free port on the left bank of the Rhine, 362 miles by rail WSW. of Berlin, 175 SE. of Rotterdam, 149 E. of Brussels, and 302 NE. of Paris. Formerly an independent city of the German empire, it is now the capital of Rhenish Prussia. Cologne is a fortress of the first rank, forming a semicircle, with the Rhine as its chord, and the town of Deutz on the opposite bank as a tête-du-pont. It is connected with this suburb by a bridge of boats, and an iron bridge 1362 feet in length, for railway and carriage traffic. Pop. (1871) 129,233; (1885) 161,401, only 25,115 of whom were Protestants. The old streets are mostly narrow and crooked; but the area freed by the removal of the ancient fortifications, which dated originally from the 13th century, is laid out on a more spacious plan. This area, which doubles that occupied by the old town, was purchased in 1882 by the corporation for about £600,000; its most prominent feature is the handsome Ringstrasse or boulevard, nowhere less than 60 feet wide, which encircles the entire old town. forts, planted round Cologne and Deutz, within a radius of about 4 miles from the cathedral. The ancient buildings in Cologne, both secular and ecclesiastical, are of great architectural interest; the Romanesque and Transition styles are specially well represented in the numerous churches of the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries. The church of St Maria im Capitol, consecrated in 1049, is the earliest example in Cologne of a church with a trefoil-shaped ground-plan for transepts and choir. In the church of St Ursula are preserved the bones of the 11,000 virgins, companions of St Ursula (q.v.). The church of St Gereon boasts of the possession of the bones of St Gereon, and of the 308 martyrs of the Theban legion, slain during Diocletian's persecution. The church of St Peter contains the altar-piece of the crucifixion of St Peter by Rubens, and that of the Minorites the tomb of the famous scholastic, Duns Scotus.

new fortifications include a number of detached

The chief object of interest in the city, however, as well as its greatest ornament, is the cathedral, one of the noblest specimens of Gothic architecture in Europe. This cathedral is said to have had its origin in an erection by Archbishop Hildebold, during the reign of Charlemagne in 814. Frederic Barbarossa bestowed upon it, in 1162, the bones of the three Magi (q.v.), which he took from Milan, and this gift greatly increased its importance. The bones are retained as precious relics to this day; but the old structure was burned in 1248. According to some accounts, the present cathedral was begun in the same year, but others fix the date of its commencement in 1270-75. To whom the design of this noble building is to be ascribed is uncertain. The choir, the first part completed, was consecrated in 1322. The work was carried on,