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CANON-CANON LAW.

attached to the service of a cathedral or other church. It enjoined on the canons manual labour, the practice of silence at certain times, confession twice a year, and other duties needless to specify. The canons formed the council of the bishop, and assisted him in the government of his diocese. They lived in a house called a monastery, slept in a common room, ate at the same table, and were originally supported out of the episcopal revenues. In 816, Louis le Débonuaire induced the Council of Aix-la-Chapelle to draw up a general rule for the whole body of canons. Canons found their way not long afterwards into England, Scotland, and Ireland. Various reforms of C. were made in the 11th and beginning of the 12th century. Gradually, however, many began to emancipate themselves from the restrictions of monastic life, and to live independent of any rule, which is not at all surprising, for the canons were wont to keep apart from the lower clergy,' as they called parish priests and others who really laboured to impart religious instruction. They were often of noble families, loved titles at Lyon, they were called counts-and in general were men of the world rather than true churchmen. Some of these reformed or remodelled Canons were called Black Canons, from wearing a black cassock; others, White Canons, from wearing a white habit, like the Præmonstratenses of Picardy in France. The class of secular canons, whose manner of life was not conventual, and who therefore escaped destruction in England when the monasteries were abolished by Henry VIII., probably originated in a tendency to relax the severity of rule enjoined on the regulars, which indeed was hardly less stringent than in the case of ordinary monks. Secular canons still exist in the Anglican Church-and their duties-making allowance for the difference between the Roman Catholic and Protestant religions-are much the same in kind as they were before the Reformation. See CATHEDRAL. CANON, in Music, a kind of fugue in which not merely a certain period or phrase is to be imitated or answered, but the whole of the first part with which the C. begins is imitated throughout by all As in fugues, the melody of the part to be imitated is called the subject, and the others its reply. The C. is the highest degree

the other parts.

of mechanical musical contrivance. The ancients

spent more time in the construction and resolving of mere puzzling and unentertaining canons, than in the cultivation of good harmony and melody. Good canons, however, are always interesting, and different from any other composition. For a full treatment of writing a C., see Marpurg's Abhandlung von der Fuge, published by Peters, Leipzig.

at the end of the 12th century. 2. The Decretals. They are a collection of canonical epistles, in five books, written by popes alone, or assisted by some cardinals, to determine any controversy, and first published about the year 1230, by Raimundus Barcinus. They lay down rules respecting the lives and conversation of the clergy, matrimony and divorces, inquisition of criminal matters, purgation, penance, excommunication, and other matters deemed to be within the cognizance of the ecclesiastical courts. To these five books of Gregory, Boniface VIII. added a sixth, published 1298 A. D., called Sextus Decretalium, or the Sext, which is itself divided into five books, and forms a supplement to the work of Barcinus, of which it follows the arrangement. The Sext consists of decisions promulgated after the pontificate of Gregory IX. Then there came the Clementines, which were constitutions of Pope Clement V., published 1308 A. D. These decretals form the principal portion of the canon law. John Andreas, a celebrated canonist in the 14th c., wrote a commentary on them, which he entitled Novellæ, from a very beautiful daughter he had of that name, whom he bred a scholar; the father being a professor of law at Bologna, had instructed his daughter so well in it, that she assisted him in reading lectures to his scholars, and therefore, to perpetuate her memory, he gave that book the title of Novellæ, 3. The Extravagants of John XXII. and other later popes, by which term is meant to be denoted documents which transcend the limits of a particular collection of regulations. These books, viz., Gratian's Decree, the Decretals, and the Extravagants, together form the Corpus Juris Canonici, or great body of the 'canon law,' as formerly received and administered by the Church of Rome. There are, however, other publications of a later period, of more or less authority, but which do not appear to have received the formal sanction of the Holy See.

This C. L., borrowing from the Roman civil law many of its principles and rules of proceeding, has at different times undergone careful revision and the most learned and scientific treatment at the hands of its professors, and was very generally received in those Christian states which acknowecclesiastical law more or less to Roman Catholic ledge the supremacy of the pope; and it still gives Christendom, although its provisions have in many countries been considerably modified by the con cordats (q. v.) which the popes now and then find it expedient to enter into with Roman Catholic sovedoes not admit of the application of the C. L. in its reigns and governments, whose municipal system integrity. Indeed, the fact of its main object being to establish the supremacy of the ecclesiastical authority over the temporal power, is sufficient to explain why, in modern times, it is found to conflict with the views of public law and government, even in the case of the most absolute and despotie governments.

This ecclesiastical system, however, never obtained a firm footing in England, and the great lawyers and statesmen have always shewn not only an unwillingness to defer to its authority, but even an aversion to its rule. There was, however, a kind of

CANON LAW is a collection of ecclesiastical constitutions for the government and regulation of the Roman Catholic Church, although many of its regulations have been admitted into the ecclesiastical system of the Church of England, and still influence other Protestant bodies. It was compiled from the opinions of the ancient Latin Fathers, the decrees of general councils, and the decretal epistles and bulls of the Holy See. These, from a state of disorder and confusion, were gradually reduced into method, and may be briefly described in the follow-national C. L. in England, composed of legative and ing chronological order: 1. Gratian's Decree, which was a collection of ordinances, in three books, commenced by Ivo, Bishop of Chartres, 1114 A. D., and subsequently corrected and arranged by Gratian, a Benedictine monk, in the year 1150, after the manner of Justinian's Pandects of the Roman Law. This work comprises ecclesiastical legislation, as it may be called, from the time of Constantine the Great, at the beginning of the 4th, to that of Pope Alexander III.,

provincial constitutions, adapted to the particular necessities of the English Church. The legative constitutions were ecclesiastical laws, enacted in national synods, held under the Cardinals Otho and Othobon, legates from Pope Gregory IX. and Pope Clement IV., in the reign of King Henry III., about the years 1220 and 1268. The provincial constitutions are principally the decrees of provincial synods, hela under divers archbishops of Canterbury, from Stepheu

CANONICAL HOURS-CANONS OF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND.

days the creation was completed, that seven times
a day the just man falls, there are seven graces
of the Holy Spirit, seven divisions of the Lord's
Prayer, seven ages of a man's life, &c. The hours
had also each its mystical reference to certain
sacred occurrences, such as the incidents at our
The word 'hour,' in
Lord's birth and crucifixion.
C. H., is derived, as some have suggested, from ora,
a prayer; but more probably from hora, an hour,
and called canonical because according to the canon
or rule of the church. The proper offices for the
C. H. are to be found in the BREVIARY (q. v.).
CANONICALS, a term used to describe the
See
proper ecclesiastical dress of the clergy.
VESTMENTS.

Langton, in the reign of Henry III., to Henry | dividing the day into seven parts were-that in seven Chicheley, in the reign of Henry V., and adopted also by the province of York in the reign of Henry VI. At the dawn of the Reformation, in the reign of Henry VIII., it was enacted in Parliament that a review should be had of the C. L.; and till such review should be made, all canons, constitutions, ordinances, and synodals provincial being then already made, and not repugnant to the law of the land or the king's prerogative, should still be used and executed. And as no such review has yet been perfected, upon this enactment now depends the authority of the C. L. in England, the limitations of which appear, upon the whole, to be as follows: that no canon contrary to the common or statute law, or the prerogative royal, is of any validity; that, subject to this condition, the canons made anterior to the parliamentary provision above mentioned, and adopted in our system (for there are some which have had no reception among us), are binding both on clergy and laity; but that canons made since that period, and having no sanction from the parliament, are, as regards the laity at least, of no force. See CANONS OF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND.

In Scotland, Presbyterian though the ecclesiastical system of that country be, the old Roman C. L. still prevails to a certain extent. So deep hath this canon law been rooted,' observes Lord Stair in his Institutes of the Scotch Law, that even where the pope's authority is rejected, yet consider ation must be had to these laws, not only as those by which church benefices have been erected and ordered, but as likewise containing many equitable and profitable laws, which, because of their weighty matter, and their being once received, may more fitly be retained than rejected.' In two old Scotch acts of parliament, made in 1540 and 1551, the C. L. is used in conjunction with the Roman law to denote the common law of the country, the expression used being 'the commoun law, commoun law, baith canon, civil, and statutes of the realme.' Se on the subject of this article generally the following authorities-Blackstone's Commentaries, by Kerr, vol. i. pp. 65 and 66; Stephen's Commentaries, 4th edition, vol. i. pp. 61 and 69—vol. ii. pp. 251, 256, 257, and 290-vol. iii. pp. 45, 48, and 421-and vol. iv. p. 242; Dr. Irving's Study of the Civil Law; and Phillimore on the Influence of the Ecclesiastical Law, &c., 1851. See also a discriminating article on this subject in Knight's Political Dictionary, 1845; and see Warton's Law Dictionary, 2d edition, 1859. It will also be found carefully treated in Dr. Hook's Church Dictionary, 7th edition, 1854. In regard to Scotland, see Stair's Institutes of the Law of Scotland, I. 1, 13, and II. 8, 29; and Erskine's Institutes of the same law, I. 1, 28.

CANONISATION, in the Church of Rome, the act of the pope by which a deceased person is solemnly declared to be a saint. Something analogous to it may be found in the Apotheosis (q. v.) of the ancient Romans. It had its origin in the practice of the early church, at the dispensation of the Lord's Supper, to name and pray for those who had died as martyrs. Their names, deeds, and sufferings, the manner and day of their death, were inserted in the catalogue of martyrs, called the Canon, and they were called saints. Each bishop was at first accustomed to declare deceased persons to be saints. The exclusive exercise of this power was gradually assumed by the popes, and proved a very fruitful source of revenue, the prevalent notions with regard to saints having become such as to attach to it a very great importance. The first papal C. was accomplished by John XV. The popes have possessed the exclusive right since 1170. The right of Beatification (q. v.) also belongs to them. When the pope thinks proper to canonise, he declares his views in a consistory, and an inquiry is instituted as to the virtues and merits of the person proposed. The form of a regular process at law is adopted, and an ecclesiastic is specially appointed to contend against the claims advanced, who receives the designation of Advocatus Diaboli; but no instance ever yet occurred of the Devil's Advocate winning a case. When a favourable decision is pronounced, the ceremony of C. is performed in St. Peter's Church with great pomp. The last C. was in 1839.

The Greek Church also recognises Canonisation. The right to perform the ceremony lies with the Patriarch of Constantinople, but it has rarely

occurred.

CANONRY, the office and dignity of a CANON See CATHEDRAL.

CANONS, BOOK OF, in Scottish ecclesiastical history, a code of canons or rules for the Church of Scotland, prepared by the Scottish bishops, in obedience to the command of Charles I., revised by Laud, and confirmed by letters-patent under the great seal, 23d May 1635. It tended much to increase the dissatisfaction prevalent throughout Scotland, and which soon broke out so violently. It not only required the most strict adherence to the Liturgy, then not yet published, but enjoined many things concerning ceremonies in worship beyond what Laud had been able to introduce in the Church of England; it also took away the powers of church-courts, and decreed the penalty of excommunication against all who should deny the government of the church by bishops to be scriptural, whilst its very first canon decreed that penalty against all who should deny the king's supremacy in ecclesiastical affairs.

CANO'NICAL HOURS are the times fixed for divine service in the Catholic Church, but no longer strictly adhered to. These have not always been the same, and it is not known when or by whom they were settled-some say by Popes Damasus or Gelasius, or Gregory-but they are now fixed at seven; viz., Matins and Lauds, Prime, Tierce, Sext, Nones, Vespers, and Compline. These used to be observed as follows: Prime, Tierce, Sext, and Nones, at the first, third, sixth, and ninth hours of the day, counting from six in the morning; Vespers at the eleventh hour; Compline, or Completorium, as completing the services of the day, at midnight; and Matins shortly after midnight. These hours were by the Anglo-Saxons called Uhtsang, Primesang, Undersang, Middaysang, Noonsang, Evensang, and Nightsang. The first two and the last formed the nocturnal, the remaining CANONS OF four the diurnal offices. The reasons given for the ENGLAND, called |

THE CHURCH OF Constitutions and Canons

CANOPIC VASES-CANOSA.

Ecclesiastical, agreed upon, with the king's licence, | for which it was used. Horace (Epod. ix. 9), and in the synod held at London in 1603-1604. They others of the ancient writers, mention guat-curtains were drawn up by the Convocation, in order to give (canopca). Subsequently, the same term came to effect to the decisions of the Conference held at be used for the projecting covering and hangings of Hampton; and are, for the most part, a digest of old a bed, without reference to their original use, and canons, with some new ones added. They are 141 latterly for any projecting covering of a similar in number. They are the basis of the ecclesiastical form, to whatever use it might be adapted, or law, as far as the clergy are concerned, but they are of whatever materials it might be formed. C. is not binding upon the laity, except in so far as they thus used to signify the covering which is borne are declaratory of the ancient canon law. There had over the heads of kings and other persons of disbeen a previous body of canons drawn up in 1571, tinction, and still more frequently over the Holy but these had not been sanctioned by the sovereign. Sacrament and the image of Christ, in processions in In 1640, the Convocation, which was then assembled Roman Catholic countries. See BALDACHIN. with the parliament, prolonged its session beyond it, and passed a body of canons of a very arbitrary character; amongst other things, enjoining that on some Sunday in every quarter, every officiating minister should insist on the divine right of kings and their prerogatives, and enforce conformity to the rites of the Church of England. In these canons, it was directed that the communion-table should be railed in, and be placed as in cathedrals, as is now done in all churches. These canons were abrogated by an act passed in the 13th year of Charles II. An account of these canons and those now in force may be found at length in Hook's Church Directory. -Every clergyman, when instituted to a benefice or licensed to a cure, promises CANONICAL OBEDIENCE to the bishop-i. e., the obedience due according to the canons of the church.

CANO'PIC VASES were vases used by the Egyptian priests to contain the viscera of embalmed bodies. They were arranged in a series of fourthe first contained the stomach and larger intestines; the second, the smaller intestines; the third, the lungs and heart; and the fourth, the liver and gall-bladder; and each had on its lid the head of the particular deity who was supposed to preside over the contents.

CANO'PUS, or CANO'BUS, a city of ancient Egypt, from which the Canopic mouth of the Nile derived its name, was situated on the sea-coast, 15 miles east of Alexandria. The Canopic mouth of the Nile appears to have been at an early period the only one into which foreign ships could enter. At C. the boundary-line between Asia and Africa was drawn by the ancient geographers. There was a temple of Hercules here, which was a secure sanctuary to all who fled to it; also one of Serapis as several extant Greek inscriptions shew. The inhabitants of C., a mixed Egypto-Hellenic people, were infamous, in the Greek and Roman times, for their profligacy. The city declined after the rise of Alexandria. Traces of its ruins are visible about 3 miles from Aboukir.

CANOPUS is also the name of a very brilliant star of the southern hemisphere, in the constellation of the ship Argo, and, as Plutarch relates, received its name from Canopos, the pilot of Menelaus.

CA'NOPY (Lat. Canopeum; Gr. Könōpeion, from Kõnōps, gnat or mosquito). The derivation of this word throws a curious light on its original meaning, which probably was a mosquito-curtain. The simplest form of C., in this its primitive sense, is that mentioned by Herodotus (ii. 95), who tells us that the fishermen on the Nile were in the habit of suspending the net with which they had fished during the day on an upright pole, from which it was expanded into the form of a tent, and served to protect them from the attacks of insects during the night. As it has been proved that insects will not pass through the meshes of a net, though wide enough to admit them, it is probable that this simple contrivance may have been quite effectual for the purpose

In Gothic architecture, C. is the term applied to those rich coverings which are frequently met with over niches and tombs, and sometimes over doors and windows. It belongs chiefly to the decorated and perpendicular styles, though it was not unknown much earlier. The C. consists of a roof, which may be supported on pillars all round, or may have one, or if in an angle two, sides attached to the wall, with dependent ornamental work representing drapery. The early English canopies are usually simple in form; those in French buildings of the same period being greatly more complicated and elaborate, as, for example, those in the cathedrals of Chartres and Bayeux. In the decorated style, the canopies were richly ornamented and very various in form, as in the accompanying illustration. Some canopies are ornamented

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CANOSSA-CANT.

is obscured in the mists of mythology), on the site of whose citadel the modern town is said to stand. The antiquities consist of subterranean sepulchres, containing painted vases and funereal furniture of the most magnificent description in perfect order, painted busts, marble statues, &c. Many of the bodies found here were attired in cloth of gold, with head-dresses gleaming with precious stones, and earrings and bracelets of rich and exquisite workmanship. The objects were transferred to the museum at Naples. The ruins of an amphitheatre, aqueduct, &c., have also been found. C. suffered by earthquake in 1851. Pop. 8000.

CANO'SSA, a town of Modena, Northern Italy, about 12 miles south-west of Reggio, celebrated as the place where, in 1077, the Emperor Henri IV. of Germany obtained absolution from Pope Gregory VII., after he had abased himself by three days supplication, bareheaded and barefooted.

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CANO VA, ANTONIO, the founder of new school of Italian sculpture, was born, November 1, 1757, at Possagno, a village in the Venetian territory. Having displayed in boyhood great talent in modelling, the artist gained the patronage of Giovanni Faliero, a Venetian senator, by whom he was sent to work under a sculptor at Bassano. His first imaginative performance, Eurydice,' half the size of life, was executed in his 17th year. After this he went to to Venice, where his study of art properly began. In 1779, Faliero sent him to Rome, with an introduction to Cav. Zuliano, the Venetian ambassador, and one of the most illustrious patrons of art at this time in Italy: In Rome the first result of his studies appeared in the statue of Apollo,' which must be regarded as his earliest effort in ideal sculpture; but a far greater progress toward the pure style of the antique was evident in his next work, Theseus with the Centaur.' Nevertheless, C. did not rigorously adhere to the severe simplicity of the antique, but rather took pains to mitigate it by a peculiar grace and loveliness of his own, such as characterised his group of Cupid and Psyche,' which was produced soon after he had completed the monument of Pope Clement XIV. This is apparent even in the colossal monument of Clement XIII. (erected in St. Peter's, 1792); though this work, on the whole, is a magnificent effort of genius, simple in style, and with nothing overwrought in the figures. Among his other works may be noticed a 'Winged Cupid,' 'Venus and Adonis,' a 'Psyche holding a Butterfly;' 'Penitent Magdalen,' in lifesize; Hercules hurling Lichas from the rock,' a colossal work, but not free from affectation; 'Kreugas and Damoxenos' (two pugilists), Palamedes,' and Perseus with the head of the Medusa,' a work which, more than all previous efforts, served to raise his fame. In 1802, C. was appointed by Pope Pius VII. chief curator of all Roman works of art in the Papal States; but was soon called away to Paris, to prepare the model of a colossal statue of Bonaparte.

After the fall of the French empire, C., in 1815, was employed by the Roman government as ambassador to recover the works of art which had been

his return

taken to Paris, and paid a visit to England. On to Rome, he was created Marquis of I-chia, with a pension of 3000 scudi. This money he expended in the support of art and artists in Rome. C. died in Venice, 13th October 1822. A marble statue was erected to his memory in the Church de' Frati, 1827. Another monument to C.

was erected in the library of the capitol, by order

of Leo XII., in 1833.

It is universally allowed that to C. belongs the

honour of having restored to sculpture the position which it had lost among the modern fine arts. After Michael Angelo Buonarotti and Bernini, he was the third of epoch-making Italian sculptors. His delicate execution and masterly treatment of marble are unrivalled, and even his faults-viz., his exaggerated nicety and carefulness, and his use of corrosives to produce fine finish-served to attract by the novel effects which they produced. The essential characteristic of all his works is sentiment-often verging, however, on sentimentalism-and this also, like his delicacy in details, was accordant with the taste prevalent in his time, and was the chief cause of his popularity, as of his errors. When judged by the sterner principles of antique sculpture, the works of C. are which Thorwaldsen could express so well. found deficient in that objective or realistic character

During his leisure hours C. amused himself in painting, in which he attained such a degree of excellence in following the colouring of the Venetian masters, that his pictures have even deceived connoisseurs. In his private life, C. was a very amiable and benevolent man. Biographies of C. have been written by Missirini (4 vols. Prato, 1824), Cicognara (Venice, 1823), and Rosini (Pisa, 1825.)

In

CANROBERT, FRANÇOIS CERTAIN, DE, Marshal of France, born in 1809, studied in the military school of St. Cyr, and in 1828 entered the army. 1835 he sailed for Algeria, and during the war in the province of Oran was made a captain. In the storming of Constantine, he was one of the first who entered the breach, when he received a wound in the leg. About the same time he had the decoration of the Legion of Honour conferred upon him. In 1846 he became lieutenant-colonel, and soon after colonel. In 1848 he had the command of an expedition against the tribes of the Bouaoun, whom he defeated at the Pass of Djerma, and was victorious against the Kabyles. As general of brigade, in 1850 he led an expedition through the rocky country of Narah, and destroyed the Arab stronghold there. In January 1853, he became a general of division. He had the command of the first division of the French army under Marshal St. Arnaud, sent to the Crimea in 1854; and at the battle of the Alma, was wounded in the breast and hand by the splinter of a shell. On the death of the marshal, C. took the chief command of the French army; and at Inkermann was slightly wounded, and had a horse killed under him. In 1855 he resigned his position to General Pelissier, and resumed the command of the first division. The same year he was made G.C.B. On the birth of the heir to the imperial throne, March 16, 1856, he was created a marshal of France. In the war in Italy against the Austrians, in 1859, C. had the command of the third division of the French army; and at the battle of Magenta, June 4, his corps d'armée turned the left of the Austrians. In the great battle of Solferino, on the 24th of the same month, his division was hotly engaged, and lost 1000 men in killed and wounded.

CAʼNSO (Cape), the eastern extremity of Nova Scotia, and the southern boundary of the entrance of Chebucto, or Chedabucto Bay. It is in lat. 45° 17′ N., and long 61° W.-2. (Strait), a passage of 17 miles in length and 24 in average breadth, connecting the inlet just mentioned with the Gulf of St. Of the three channels between that inland sea and Lawrence, so as to form an island of Cape Breton. the open ocean, it is the one that is least frequently used by European vessels.

CANT, on shipboard, is a name given to such

CANT-CANTEEN.

timbers, near the bow and stern, as lie obliquely to | distinguish the Basque Provinces and Asturias from the line of keel. It is also a general term for any- the sterile central plateau of Spain. thing sloping, inclined, or turned aside. Canting' is to turn anything over, or out of its proper position.

C.,

CANT, ANDREW, a Scottish divine of the 17th was first minister of Pitsligo, in the north of Scotland, and afterwards in Aberdeen. In July 1638, he was one of the commissioners sent to that city, to compel the inhabitants to subscribe the National Covenant; and in November of the same year, he was a member of the memorable General Assembly, held at Glasgow, which abolished Episcopacy in Scotland. He was with the Scots army when it obtained possession of Newcastle, August 30, 1640; and in 1641, on the second visit of Charles I. to Scotland, C. preached before his majesty at Edinburgh. In 1660, in consequence of a complaint presented to the magistrates of Aberdeen, charging him with having published a seditious book, entitled Lex Rex, and with fulminating anathemas and imprecations against many of his congregation, C. relinquished his charge and left the town. He died about 1664.

of

CANTA BILE, in Music, is found in several significations. In general it is placed over passages easy and flowing melody, as well in instrumental as vocal music. In songs, the melodies which lie chiefly in the middle region of the voice are marked C.: extreme tones of the voice have a peculiar timbre and character quite foreign to the cantabile. C. marked at the beginning of a piece means rather slow than quick. In the C. style the finest effects can be produced by the singer in swelling, sustained sound, the portamento, &c. C. is also called contilene.

CANTA BRI, a rude race of mountaineers in ancient Spain, were of Iberian origin, and lived in the district now known as Burgos, and on the coasts of the Bay of Biscay, which derived from them its name, Oceanus Cantabricus. The most important of their nine towns were Juliobrica (near the source of the Ebro), Vellica, and Concana. The C. are described as like the Scythians and Thracians in hardihood and martial character, sleeping on the bare earth, enduring extreme pain without a murmur, and, like most savages, leaving agricultural toil to their women. Their bravery was evinced in the Cantabrian war, a six years' contest with the Romans, begun under Augustus, and concluded by Agrippa, 25-19 B.C. Tiberius afterwards stationed garrisons in the towns of the conquered C. but some portion retreated into their fastnesses among the mountains, where they preserved their independence. They are supposed to be the ancestors of the BASQUES (q. v.).

CANTA BRIAN MOUʼNTAINS, the general name of the several ranges of coast and boundary mountains, extending along the north coast of Spain, from Cape Finisterre, to the southern base of the West Pyrenees, and so dividing the coast districts from the interior elevated plateau of Castile. The summits of the mountains here and there reach the lower line of the snow region, with a more gentle slope on the south side, and forming plateaudistricts from 1600 to 2000 feet high on the north, | where the slopes are steeper and intersected by coast rivers, leave in several parts only narrow stripes of flat coast-land, and running out into the sea from several bold promontories. The whole group of mountains is named variously by the people of various localities, and includes the Sierra de Aralar, Salvada, Anagña, Sejos, Albas, and Altuna-all | more or less wild and romantic, but having those fertile and prosperous trading districts which

CANTAL, a central department of France, formed out of the south portion of the old province of Auvergne. It has an area of 2090 square miles and a population, in 1856, 247,665. AUVERGNE.

CANTA LIVER, or CAʼNTLIVER, a large bracket used in architecture for supporting cornice balconies, and even stairs. Cantalivers are often highly ornamented. The accompanying example is from a stair at the corner of Randolph Crescent, Edinburgh.

Cantaliver.

See

CANTARINI, SIMONE, also known as SIMONE DA PESARO or IL PESARESE, an Italian painter, was born at Pesaro in 1612. He studied under Guido Reni at Bologna; but his intolerable arrogance made him numerous enemies, and in consequence he left the city, and went to Rome, where he won a high reputation, and was thought by many to excel even his master in the graceful finish of his brush. On his return to Bologna, he opened a school, but shortly after accepted an invitation from the Duke of Mantua to visit that city. Here also his excessive self-esteem involved him in disagreeable relations with everybody, and at last he quarrelled with the duke himself, on which he left for Verona, where he died in 1648, under suspicion either of having poisoned himself, or of having been poisoned by a Mantuan painter whom he had injured. C. was distinguished in modelling and flesh-colouring. A 'Madonna upborne by Angels,' and a head of Guido when old, in the gallery at Bologna; and others elsewhere, remain as proofs of his skill. His thirty-seven etchings closely resemble the etchings of Guido Reni, and have in several instances, been fraudulently sold with the mark of this master forged upon them.

CANTATA, in Music, is a name given to a vocal composition; but it is so very indefinite, that it in no way shews in what respect such composition differs from any other. In Zedler of Halle's great Lexicon, the C. is defined as a 'long vocal composition, the text of which is Italian,' &c.; while in Sulzer's Theorie der Schönen Künste, it is said to be a short piece of vocal music of a pathetic nature,' &c. The C. is always more extended and wrought out than the simple song, and consists of different movements.

CANTEE'N, is a refreshment-house in a barrack, for the use of the soldiers. The chief articles of food are supplied to the troops direct by the government; but malt liquor, spirits, and small grocerywares, the soldier is left to buy for himself; and the C. is, or is intended to be, a shop where he could make these purchases economically without the necessity of going beyond the precincts of the barrack. Practically, however, they are little more than beer and spirit shops. One of the officers twice a week inspects the goods sold at the C., and occasionally insists on the price being lowered. No soldier is obliged to buy anything at the C.; he may lay out his small sums elsewhere if he prefer. Between the years 1836 and 1845, it was found that, among 112 canteens in the United Kingdom, the rent and head-money paid varied from £4 per annum (one at Guernsey) to £1344 per annum (one at Woolwich); they brought in collectively to the government about £70,000 annually. Great intoxication having resulted from the sale of spirits at the canteens, the War Office prohibited

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