Cerinthus, a heretic who lived at the close of the apostolic age, but of whom we have nothing better than uncertain and confused accounts. He is said to have been a native of Alexandria. He

passed from Egypt into Asia Minor, and lived in Ephesus contemporaneously (according to the belief of the church) with the aged apostle John. It is related by Irenæus, on the authority of Polycarp, that John held the heretic in such detestation that, on a certain occasion, when he encountered Cerinthus in the baths of Ephesus, he immediately left the baths, saying to those about him: Let us fly, lest the bath fall on us, since Cerinthus is within, the enemy of the truth." It is also said by Irenæus that the Gospel by St John was written in direct opposition to the tenets of Cerinthus. He held that the world was not made by the highest God, but by some angel or power far removed from and ignorant of the Supreme Being. He is also said to have held coarse and sensual millenarian views, to have believed the Jewish ceremonial law to be in part binding upon Christians, and to have taught that the Divine Spirit was first united with the man Jesus in his baptism by John. Cerinthus being, so far as is known, the oldest teacher of Judaico-Gnostic principles, and, according to Neander, the intermediate link between the Judaising and Gnostic sects,' there would naturally be a greater incongruity and want of harmony in his system than in the later developments of Gnosticism (q.v.).

Cerithium, a genus of Prosobranchiate Gasteropods, and type of a large family, Cerithiadæ. The shell is rough, naked, spiral, elongated, with many coils, and with an oval oblique aperture which has a short canal in front. The species of this family are numerous (140), most of them marine, but many inhabiting estuaries and brackish rather than salt water; some are found in lakes and rivers. A few belong to temperate climates, but most of them are tropical, and in mangrove swamps they particularly abound. The fossil species are very numerous, and almost all limited to the Tertiary formations. C. vulgatum, over six inches in height, is often seen in Italian markets. Cerium (sym. Ce, eq. 92) is a rare metal

It

found in cerite and a few other minerals. is a white metal, has not been obtained in any quantity, is not therefore employed in any manufacture, and forms two basic oxides and a numerous

class of salts. The nitrate and oxalate of cerium have been employed in the vomiting of pregnancy, their action being somewhat similar to that of the subnitrate of bismuth. Cerium biscuits are biscuits containing a small proportion of the oxalate, and they form a very convenient medium for the administration of the salt. Cerite or Ochroite is the silicate of cerium, and is found as a mineral in gneiss, near Riddarhytta, in Westmanland in

Sweden.

Cerox'ylon. See WAX PALM.

Cerre'to, a cathedral city of South Italy, on a slope of the Apennines, 14 miles NNW. of Benevento. Pop. 5129.

Cerro de Pasco, the capital of the Peruvian department of Junin, stands at an elevation of 14,276 feet, 138 miles NE. of Lima. Near it are some of the richest silver-mines on the continent.

The climate is cheerless and inclement. Pop. 7000, mostly Indians and half-breeds.

Cerro Gordo, a plateau in Mexico, the most easterly on the route from Vera Cruz to the capital. Here, on 18th April 1847, the Americans totally

defeated the Mexicans.

Cerro Largo, a department in the NE. of Uruguay, well watered, with large savannahs and

CERTIORARI

forests. Area, 5735 sq. m.; pop. (1894) 36,000, chiefly engaged in cattle-raising. Capital, Cerro Largo or Melo; pop. 5000.

Certaldo, a town of Central Italy, 19 miles SW. of Florence (37 by rail). It is noteworthy as the residence of Boccaccio, who was born and died here. His house is still standing, much as it was in the poet's time. Pop. 2500.

in the great order Insessores or Passeres. They are Certhiidæ, a family of birds, generally placed best known by their most typical representative birds, absent however from the Ethiopian and the Creeper (q.v.). They are widely distributed neo-tropical regions, and the family includes twelve climbers, and feed on insects. genera and about fifty species. They are expert

Certificate, in the law of England and of the United States, is a written statement by a person having a public or official status concerning some matter within his knowledge and authority. There are a great many classes of such certificates-e.g. certificate of charge upon land; certificate of the chief-clerk in Chancery proceedings, which is practically a report of what the clerk has done; certificate of incorporation under the Companies Acts; certifiof discharge of a debtor in liquidation; certificate cate of mortgage on ships under the Merchant Shipping Acts; certificate of naturalisation. the United States, the word is commonly applied to any formal statement made by a public servant in the execution of his duty, as by a collector of taxes, a postmaster, &c. See CHARACTER.

In

the judicial assurance given to a party of the Certification, in the law of Scotland, signifies course to be followed by the judge in case he disobeys the will of a summons, or other writ or order of the court. Reiterated contumacy on the part of the defender was at one time punished with confiscation of his property (1449, chap. 29), but now certification merely means that if he fails to appear in the usual manner, the judge will decern, or pronounce judgment against him.

Certiora'ri is the writ by which, since the abolition of imprisonment for debt and the consequent disuse of the better known writ habeas corpus, causes are removed from inferior courts of record into the High Court of Justice. This is a matter of considerable importance to the commercial public. Such removal is either before or after judgment in the inferior court. Before judgment certiorari is competent as tort, in all cases except where the sum sued for is less than £5. Either party can remove the cause, but, where the sum is less than £20, the defendant must give his sureties for the debt and costs. The removal must be within six weeks after appearance of defendant. fresh statement of claim. The certiorari is obeyed In the superior court the plaintiff must make a by sending up the original record. Under the Judicature Acts there is a further power of removal when any defence or counter-claim is set up which is beyond the jurisdiction of the inferior court. In the county courts, where the action on contract is above £20, or on tort above £5, the defendant has a general right to certiorari on security for costs. Where the discretion of the superior court is appealed to, such considerations as the difficulty of legal points, the improbability of obtaining an impartial jury, are important. After judgment. certiorari is often applied for by the successful plaintiff for purposes of execution, where the person or effects of the defendant cannot be found in the jurisdiction of the inferior court. Certiorari may also be obtained as of right by the crown to remove an indictment in a criminal cause to the Queen's Bench Division or the Central Criminal Court. This writ used also to be of right to private

CERTOSA DI PAVIA

prosecutors, but since the institution of the Court of Criminal Appeal it is necessary to show cause, as in a civil case from the county courts, and to give security.

In the United States, certiorari is generally provided for by statute, but where no such provision is made, or no other mode of review of the proceedings of an inferior court has been provided by statute, any superior court exercising common law jurisdiction has an inherent right to issue this writ. It is used in both civil and criminal cases to bring the whole record of the inferior tribunal before a superior court, to determine whether the former has proceeded within its jurisdiction, and also to enable substantial justice to be done whenever an inferior tribunal has failed to proceed according to the requirements of the law." It is used as an original process to remove a cause, and change venue, only where the superior court is satisfied that an impartial trial will not otherwise be had.

Certo'sa di Pavi'a, a celebrated Carthusian monastery, 5 miles N. of Pavia, was founded in 1396 by Giovanni Galeazzo Visconti, first Duke of Milan, in atonement for the murder of his uncle. The church is a splendid structure in the form of a Latin cross, the ground-plan being 252 feet long by 177 feet broad. The richly sculptured façade, designed by Borgognone, was commenced in 1473. The building is made up of various styles, but the Pointed prevails in the interior, which is decorated with frescoes, paintings, &c., and contains a gorgeous high-altar, the mausoleum of the founder, and several monuments. After the battle of Pavia (1525), Francis I. was for three days a prisoner at the Certosa, which, since the dissolution of the monasteries, has been constituted a monument. The name certosa is a form of Carthusian (q.v.), and is used of other monasteries of the order, as that to the south of Florence.

national

Ceru'men is ear-wax, the yellow waxy matter which is secreted by certain glands lying in the passage that leads from the external opening of the ear to the membrane of the tympanum. It lubri cates the passage and entangles particles of dust and small insects, preventing them from getting farther in. See EAR.

Cervantes Saavedra, MIGUEL DE, the author of Don Quixote, was born at Alcalá de Henares in 1547. His birthday is unknown, but he was baptised on the 9th of October. He was a descendant of a family that traced its origin back to the 10th century through a line of Castilian nobles, of whom one was the renowned warrior Nuño Alfonso, whose grandson took the surname of Cervantes from the old castle of San Servando, or Cervantes, near Toledo. It was borne with honour by many church dignitaries, soldiers, and magistrates of the 14th and 15th centuries, but at the birth of the man who gave it immortality it had ceased to be one of the prominent names of Spain. The name of Saavedra came into the poet's branch of the family by marriage in the 15th century. Of Cervantes personally we know little or nothing beyond what he himself tells us, but of the events of his life there is a tolerably complete record. The story of his having studied at Salamanca is improbable; all we know of his education is that Juan Lopez de Hoyos, a professor of belles-lettres at Madrid, calls him his dearly beloved pupil.' The first known productions of his pen appeared in 1569 in a collection of pieces on the death of the queen, edited by the professor. Early in the same year he passed over into Italy in the service of Cardinal Giulio Acquaviva, but shortly afterwards enlisted as a soldier under the command, it would appear, of Marc Antony Colonna. At the battle of Lepanto he was in

the thick of the fight, and received three severe gunshot wounds, by one of which his left hand and arm were permanently disabled. After having seen some further service against the Turks in Tunis, he was returning to Spain in 1575 with letters of recommendation to the king from Don John of Austria and the Viceroy of Sicily, when the galley he sailed in was captured by Algerine corsairs, and with his brother Rodrigo and several others he was carried into Algiers. He remained in captivity five years, during which he made four daring attempts to escape, and lived in almost daily expectation of death or torture. It was not for himself alone that he sought freedom. No nobler story of unselfish heroism has ever been told than that in the depositions of his fellow captives at Algiers, where they testify to his selfdevotion, his dauntless spirit, and his generosity, and with touching earnestness strive to give expression to their own gratitude, love, and admiration. In 1580 he was ransomed by the charity of the Redemptionist Fathers and by the devotion of his family which reduced itself to poverty to provide the sum required; and rejoining his old regiment in Portugal, he served in the expedition to the Azores under the Marquis of Santa Cruz. The story of a liaison with a Portuguese lady is an invention of the biographers to account for a certain Isabel de Saavedra mentioned in an official document of 1605 as his natural daughter. There is no other evidence of her existence, and if this is to be relied upon she was born after his marriage, and nearly two years after his return from Portugal. At the close of the war he retired from military life and turned his attention to literature. His first work was the Galatea, a pastoral romance of the same class as the Diana of Montemayor and the Filida of his friend Montalvo. It was printed at Alcalá in 1585-not, as is commonly said, Madrid, 1584. and for two or three years strove to gain a liveliWhile it was passing through the press he married, hood by writing for the stage. He produced between twenty and thirty plays, of which two only, the Numancia and the Trato de Argel, have survived; but from his own account it is plain that, though not ill received, they failed to attract, and that he was driven to seek some other employment. In 1587 he migrated to Seville, where he obtained the post of deputy-purveyor to the fleet. In 1594 he was appointed a collector of revenues for the kingdom of Granada; but in 1597, failing to make up the sum due to the treasury, he was sent to prison at Seville. He was released, however, on giving security for the balance, but not reinstated; nor can the government be charged with undue harshness, for though no stain attaches to his integrity, it is clear that as a business-like official he was not faultless. He remained some time longer at Seville, but nothing is known of his movements from 1599 to 1603. Local tradition maintains that he wrote Don Quixote in prison at Argamasilla in La Mancha; but it has nothing to support it save the fact that Argamasilla is Don Quixote's village. In 1603 he was living at Valladolid; in September 1604 leave was granted to print the first part of Don Quixote, and early in January 1605 the book came out at Madrid. It is commonly asserted that its reception was cold; but the truth is that it leaped into popularity at once. Within a month two pirated editions were in the press at Lisbon; by the autumn five editions had been published; and Don Quixote and Sancho Panza paraded the streets as familiar characters in the pageants at Valladolid that spring. By a minority, however, it was not welcomed. Lope de Vega wrote sneeringly of it and its author months before it was printed-for it had a pre

vious circulation in manuscript and he and his brother-dramatists showed how bitterly they resented the criticism in chapter 48. Cervantes was slow in taking advantage of his popularity. Instead of giving his readers the sequel they asked for, he busied himself with writing for the stage and composing short tales, or 'exemplary novels as he called them. The Viage del Parnaso, a poem of over 3000 lines in terza rima, reviewing the poetry and poets of the day, was another of his productions at this time. In 1613 he published his twelve Novelas, and promised his readers the second part of Don Quixote shortly. But in 1614 a writer, under the pseudonym of Alonso Fernandez de Avellaneda, brought out a spurious second part, with an insulting preface, full of coarse personal abuse of Cervantes. It was the work of a dull plagiarist, an imitator insensible to the merits of his model; but it served as the spur Cervantes needed to urge him to the completion of the genuine second part, which was sent to the press early in 1615, and published at the end of the year. It was not too soon; his health was already failing, and he died at Madrid on the 23d of April 1616. His last labours were given to things more important in his eyes than Don Quixote. While it was in the press he revised and published his rejected comedies and interludes, and but a short time before his death he finished his romance of Persiles and Sigismunda. There are few pieces of his writing more characteristic of the man than the last two that ever came from his pen-written, indeed, upon his very deathbed-the address to the reader and the dedication to the Conde de Lemos, whose generosity had relieved him from the pressure of poverty; and, like every glimpse of himself that his pages give us, they make us wish that we knew more of one so full of wisdom, patience, and charity, so bright and so brave.

It is in right of Don Quixote that the name of Cervantes has a place here; but his minor works entitle him to an honourable one in the history of Spanish literature. His novels are the best of their kind-a kind Spain excelled in; and though the Galatea is doubtless inferior to the Diana, its greatest fault is that, like the Diana, it belongs to a radically insipid species of romance. The title of poet is commonly denied him; but if a good deal of his poetry is weak, there is much that only a poet could have written, and not even Garcilaso had a finer sense of melody or a truer touch in verse. It would be unjust to judge of his dramatic powers by the comedies printed in 1615. They were nothing more than a desperate attempt to gain a footing on the stage by a concession to the popular taste. To found a great national drama worthy of his country was the ambition of his life, and the first step was to obtain a hearing. The tragedy of Numancia, with all its defects the most powerful and original drama in the language, is a better measure of Cervantes as a dramatist. And if it is impossible to accept his own estimate of the Persiles and Sigismunda, no reader will deny its invention and grace of style. His minor works all show signs of the author's care; Don Quixote, on the other hand, is the most carelessly written of all great books. Cervantes, it is plain, did not look upon it in that light. He was very proud of its popularity; but all he ever claims for it is that it will amuse, and that it did the state some service in laughing chivalry romances out of fashion. He wrote it by fits and starts; he neglected it for his other works; he sent it to the printers without revision, and made merry over their blunders and his own oversights. But it may be that we owe more to this carelessness than we think. One of

the marvels of this marvellous book is its perennial youth. After well-nigh three centuries it is as fresh and full of life as when it came from La Cuesta's press. In his other works Cervantes studied recognised models and consulted the tastes of the day; in Don Quixote he followed the lead of his own genius alone, and wrote only as instinct prompted him. Written in a desultory fashion, it had time to grow and ripen under his hand; Don Quixote and Sancho, outlines at first, became by degrees flesh and blood realities to his mind, and beings that he loved; and the book-the second part especially-served him as a kind of commonplacebook to which he turned to when he was in the mood, making it the depository of his thoughts and record of the experience and observation of a stirring life. We need not commit the disloyalty of doubting his word when he says that all he sought was to cure his countrymen of their passion for chivalry romances. He had motive enough in the magnitude of the evil, and his was only one of scores of voices lifted up against it; nor is there anything extraordinary in a champion of true chivalry, as he was, resenting a mockery that made it contemptible. But the genius of Cervantes was essentially discursive, and many other offenders and offences were comprehended in the indictment that he brought against the romances of chivalry and their readers.

The only complete edition of Cervantes' works is that of Rivadeneyra (in 12 vols. large 8vo, Madrid, 1863-64). Editions of the selected works are those of Ibarra (16 vols. small 8vo, Madrid, 1803-5), Bossange (10 vols. 12mo, Paris, 1826), and vol. i. of the Biblioteca de Autores Españoles (Madrid, 1846). Of Don Quixote in the original about 150 editions are known, and more than double that number in other languages. The first worthy of the book was Tonson's (Lond. 1738, 4 vols.); other notable ones are the Academy edition (4 vols. Madrid, 1780); Bowle's (6 vols. Salisbury and Lond. 1781); Pellicer's (5 vols. Madrid, 1797– 98); Clemencin's (6 vols. Madrid, 1833-39); Hartzenbusch's, in vols. iii.-vi. of the complete works, and also in 4 vols. 1863, a beautiful pocket edition printed at Argamasilla, in the house called Cervantes' prison; in these last the editor has often restored the text of the first edition, but often also recklessly tampered with it. F. Lopez Fabra's (2 vols. Barcelona, 1871-74) is an admirable reproduction by photography of the first edition. The claim of Señor Ortego's edition (Palencia, 1884) to give corrections made by Cervantes himself cannot be seriously maintained. The reprint of the editio princeps of the first part of Don Quixote by Mr Ormsby and Mr FitzmauriceKelly (Lond. 1898) is a splendid folio. There are translations in fourteen languages. The oldest is the English by Shelton, made in 1608 and printed 1612 (second part, 1620), a vigorous but rude and inaccurate version. Other English translations are those of Phillips (1689), Motteux (1702), Jervas (commonly called Jarvis, 1742), Smollett (1755), A. J. Duffield (3 vols. 8vo, 1881), John Ormsby (4 vols. 8vo, 1885), and H. E. Watts (5 vols. 4to, 1888 et seq.). In French there are nine versions, besides abridgments: the oldest is Oudin's (printed in 1616), the best Viardot's (1836). In German there are no less than thirteen, from the earliest in 1621 to the latest and best by Ludwig Braunfels in 1883-84. There are as many as ten Russian versions, but most of these are from the French, or abridgments. Franciosini's Italian version appeared as early as 1622, and has been followed by two others; and there are versions in Dutch, Danish, Polish, Portuguese, Swedish, Hungarian, Bohemian, Servian, and Greek. The best Life of Cervantes is by Navarrete; but there is also a good one by D.

crushing and bruising of it. They are of obvious use with a diet of hard-shelled crustaceans and

A

Upper Jaw of Port-Jackson Shark (Cestracion philippi). molluscs. The front teeth are sharp in the young forms. The egg-case has two curious spiral ridges surrounding it. The Port-Jackson Shark, or Nurse' (C. philippi) of the Australian seas, and the Cat Shark of Japan and China (C. zebra), seem to differ chiefly in the patterns of colour. None exceed five feet in length. The Cestraciontidæ are particularly interesting to geologists, for the oldest fossil sharks belong in great part to this family. The remains are found even in the Paleozoic strata; they become more numerous in the Carboniferous series; they are very numerous in the Lias and Chalk Outside view of formations; but there they cease Egg-case of almost entirely, the strata of the Cestracion Tertiary series containing scarcely philippi. any of them.' In modern times the species are reduced, as we have seen, to four at most, and other types of shark have become more prevalent. The fossil forms were abundant, also much larger, and the cestracions thus furnish a particularly good illustration of a decadent family.

Cestui que Trust, a person for whom another is a trustee. The term is Norman-French, and means in English law, and also in the United States, exactly what Beneficiary (q.v.) means in

Scots law.

Cestus (Gr. kestos, embroidered'), a girdle worn by Greek and Roman women, but at what part of the body is somewhat uncertain. It was worn apparently between the cingulum, which was a sash or girdle over the tunic just under the bosom, and the zone, worn mostly by young unmarried women lower down the body, just above the hips. According to Winckelmann, the cestus was itself worn round the loins; according to Heyne and Visconti, immediately under the bosom. The cestus of Aphrodite was covered with such alluring representations of the joys of love that she who wore it was irresistible. It was borrowed by Hera when she desired to win the love of Zeus. -CESTUS, or more correctly, CESTUS, the boxing gauntlets worn by the ancient prize-fighters, which consisted of leather thongs bound round the hands and wrists. They sometimes reached as high up as the elbows, and were armed with lead or metal bosses to increase the force of the blow.

Cetacea, an order of mammals, of aquatic habit and fish-like form. The head is large, the

CETEOSAURUS

neck indistinct; there is generally a median dorsal fin, and the tail has lateral flukes; the fore-limbs are reduced to paddles, the hind-limbs are at most represented by slight internal traces; the skin is smooth, and, with the occasional exception of a few bristles near the mouth, hairless; there is a thick layer of fat or blubber under the skin which serves instead of hair as a heat-retainer. The eye is small, there is no external ear, the nostrils are situated vertically. The bones are spongy and oily, the neck vertebræ are compressed and often fused, there is no union to form a sacrum. The skull is peculiarly modified, the brain-case being high, and the front part prolonged into more or less of a snout. There are no collar-bones; the bones of the arm are flattened and stiff; the joints of the second and third fingers are always above the normal number; the whole arm forms a flipper; the hip-girdle and hind-leg are degenerate. In one group teeth are absent except in the fœtus, and are replaced by whalebone' growths from the palate; in no case is there more than one set of teeth. The stomach has several chambers; the intestine is simple. The liver is less divided than usual, and there is no gall-bladder. The bloodvessels form wonderful networks (retia mirabilia). The top of the windpipe is prolonged forwards so as to form, when embraced by the soft palate, a continuous air-passage from nostrils to lungs. The brain is large. The placenta is 'non-deciduate and diffuse.' The teats are two in number, and lie beside the female genital aperture; the milk is squeezed into the mouth of the sucking young. The Cetacea are widely distributed in all seas and in some large rivers. They swim powerfully, and the tail works up and down, not sideways. They rise to the surface to breathe, and do not spout sea-water from their blowholes. The expiration is periodic and violent, and the forcibly expelled air being laden with water, vapour may condense in a pillar of fine spray, or the ascending column may carry up some surface sea-water along with it, but it must be recognised that the process is simply that of ordinary expiration in peculiar conditions. They are mostly inoffensive, generally social in habit, vary from 4 to 60 feet in length, and feed on jelly-fish, crustaceans, pteropods, cuttlefish, fishes, and in one genus (Orca) on seals and on other whales.

Two very distinct series have to be distinguished (a) the Toothed Whales or Odontoceti, and (b) the Baleen Whales or Mystacoceti. The former include Sperm Whales (Physeter), the Bottlenose (Hyperoodon), the genus Platanista and its allies, and the great family of Dolphins (q.v.). The latter sub-order includes the Right Whale (Balena), the Humpbacks' (Megaptera), and the Rorquals (Balaenoptera).

In the Eocene, Cetacea are represented by primitive, less specialised forms, known as Zeuglodons, but the remains are, as one would expect, somewhat fragmentary, and the conclusions to be drawn from them very uncertain. In Miocene and Pliocene strata still more fragmentary cetacean remains have been found, and are grouped together in the genus Squalodon.

There is much doubt and dispute in regard to the origin and affinities of Cetacea. They are related by some to Carnivores, but the researches of Professor Flower have made it more probable that they have much closer affinities with Ungulates. He regards it as not unlikely that the whole group had a fresh-water origin. Fuller details must be sought under the article WHALE. See Flower's article Mammalia,' Ency. Brit.

Ceteosaurus (kētos, 'whale;' sauros, ‘lizard'), a large dinosaurian reptile belonging to the Jurassic System (q.v.). According to Professor